Previous Period

The achievements of ancient peoples are difficult to document because few written records have survived from the period before 2000 B.C. Most of the available evidence comes from archaeological investigations of the physical remains of various cultures. For example, paintings found on cave walls, dating back some 30,000 years, reveal that prehistoric artists were close observers of animals and knew a great deal about animal anatomy. Also, the discovery of punctured human skulls that display regrown bone seems to indicate that medical practice was sophisticated to the extent that surgery, perhaps to relieve pressure on the brain after an injury, was successful; at least the patient survived long enough for the wound to heal and for bone regrowth to occur. But evidence of such achievements is admittedly quite meager.

Surgery

Even...