The Conflict

Days after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush announced the formation of an Office of Homeland Security. Under Director Tom Ridge, the office would coordinate the broad-based counterterrorist functions of a multitude of federal, state, and local agencies. Critics of the plan noted that without any statutory power or significant budget of its own, the Office of Homeland Security would have to rely on its persuasive power to get other agencies to cooperate on a comprehensive counter-terrorist plan.

Political

• Counterterrorist spending had been greatly increased throughout the 1990s and skyrocketed after the September 11 attacks. Much of the money remained at the federal level, however, leaving state and local systems understaffed and inadequately trained. The 2003 budget for homeland security promised to address this imbalance, and Ridge staked his reputation on including state and local officials...