Before 1800, a person's race was often synonymous with his ethnicity, national citizenship, or religion. When contemporaries spoke of the "Irish race," they did not use "race" to indicate appearance or skin pigmentation. This cultural and ethnic concept of race persisted until the 19th century, but the foundation of the concept was challenged by European's contact through colonialism with native peoples. The enslavement of Africans--and slavery in the Americas-- also began to alter how Europeans viewed race.

The appearance of Darwinism changed western philosophical framework by introducing into society a scientific worldview of evolution and progress. At the same time, the nations of Western Europe were expanding their colonial territories into Asia and Africa. Not surprisingly, many began to evaluate the exotic cultures they encountered through the lens of this new scientific thinking. Darwin himself was opposed to the...