must be something to which the perception is due.  It classified the percepts and concepts of experience into several ultimate types or categories (padartha), and held that the notion of each type was due to the presence of that entity.  These types are six in number—­dravya, gu@na, etc.  If we take a percept “I see a red book,” the book appears to be an independent entity on which rests the concept of “redness” and “oneness,” and we thus call the book a substance (dravya); dravya is thus defined as that which has the characteristic of a dravya (dravyatva).  So also gu@na and karma.  In the subdivision of different kinds of dravya also the same principle of classification is followed.  In contrasting it with Sa@mkhya or Buddhism we see that for each unit of sensation (say

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[Footnote 1:  Abhava (negation) as dependent on bhava (position) is mentioned in the Vais’e@sika sutras.  Later Nyaya writers such as Udayana include abhava as a separate category, but S’ridhara a contemporary of Udayana rightly remarks that abhava was not counted by Pras’astapada as it was dependent on bhava—­“abhavasya prthaganupades’a@h bhavaparatantryat na tvabhavat.” Nyayakandali, p. 6, and Lak@sa@navali, p. 2.]

[Footnote 2:  “Tattvato jnate@su bahyadhyatmike@su vi@saye@su do@sadars’anat viraktasya samihaniv@rttau atmajnasya tadarthani karmanyakurvatah tatparityagasadhanani s’rutism@rtyuditani asa@nkalpitaphalani upadadanasya atmajnanamabhyasyata@h prak@r@s@tanivarttakadharmopacaye sati paripakvatmajnanasyatyantikas’ariraviyogasya bhavat.” Ibid. p. 7.]

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whiteness) the latter would admit a corresponding real, but Nyaya-Vais’e@sika would collect “all whiteness” under the name of “the quality of white colour” which the atom possessed [Footnote ref l].  They only regarded as a separate entity what represented an ultimate mode of thought.  They did not enquire whether such notions could be regarded as the modification of some other notion or not; but whenever they found that there were some experiences which were similar and universal, they classed them as separate entities or categories.

The six Padarthas:  Dravya, Gu@na, Karma, Samanya,
Vis’e@sa, Samavaya.

Of the six classes of entities or categories (padartha) we have already given some account of dravya [Footnote ref 2].  Let us now turn to the others.  Of the qualities (gu@na) the first one called rupa (colour) is that which can be apprehended by the eye alone and not by any other sense.  The colours are white, blue, yellow, red, green, brown and variegated (citra).  Colours are found only in k@siti, ap and tejas.  The colours of ap and tejas are permanent (nitya}, but the colour of k@siti changes when heat is applied, and this, S’ridhara holds, is due to the fact that heat changes the atomic structure of k@siti (earth) and thus the old constitution of the substance being destroyed, its old colour is also destroyed, and a new one is generated.  Rupa is the general name for the specific individual colours.  There is the genus rupatva (colourness), and the rupa gu@na (quality) is that on which rests this genus; rupa is not itself a genus and can be apprehended by the eye.