The seventh substance is relative space (dik).  It is that substance by virtue of which things are perceived as being on the right, left, east, west, upwards and downwards; kala like dik is also one.  But yet tradition has given us varieties of it in the eight directions and in the upper and lower [Footnote ref 2].  The eighth substance is the soul (atman) which is all-pervading.  There are separate atmans for each person; the qualities of knowledge, feelings of pleasure and pain, desire, etc. belong to atman.  Manas (mind) is the ninth substance.  It is atomic in size and the vehicle of memory; all affections of the soul such as knowing, feeling, and willing, are generated by the connection of manas with soul, the senses and the objects.  It is the intermediate link which connects the soul with the senses, and thereby produces the affections of knowledge, feeling, or willing.  With each single connection of soul with manas we have a separate affection of the soul, and thus our intellectual experience is conducted in a series, one coming after another and not simultaneously.  Over and above all these we have Isvara.  The definition

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[Footnote 1:  See Nyayakandali, pp. 64-66, and Nyayamanjari, pp. 136-139.  The Vais’e@sika sutras regarded time as the cause of things which suffer change but denied it of things which are eternal.]

[Footnote 2:  See Nyayakandali, pp. 66-69, and Nyayamanjari, p. 140.]

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of substance consists in this, that it is independent by itself, whereas the other things such as quality (gu@na), action (karma), sameness or generality (samanya), speciality or specific individuality (vis’e@sa) and the relation of inherence (samavaya) cannot show themselves without the help of substance (dravya).  Dravya is thus the place of rest (as’raya) on which all the others depend (as’@rta).  Dravya, gu@na, karma, samanya, vis’e@sa, and samavaya are the six original entities of which all things in the world are made up [Footnote ref 1].  When a man through some special merit, by the cultivation of reason and a thorough knowledge of the fallacies and pitfalls in the way of right thinking, comes to know the respective characteristics and differences of the above entities, he ceases to have any passions and to work in accordance with their promptings and attains a conviction of the nature of self, and is liberated [Footnote ref 2].  The Nyaya-Vais’e@sika is a pluralistic system which neither tries to reduce the diversity of experience to any universal principle, nor dismisses patent facts of experience on the strength of the demands of the logical coherence of mere abstract thought.  The entities it admits are taken directly from experience.  The underlying principle is that at the root of each kind of perception there