Overview

Walled fortifications began with the founding of the first cities in the ancient world. Their design remained unaltered for almost four thousand years. Not until the late tenth century, when the first castles were built in western Europe, did a substantive change occur in the construction of fortifications. The evolution of the castle coincided with the emergence of a new political system called feudalism. For several centuries, castles played a crucial role in European history. However, by the end of the thirteenth century they had lost their military, political, and social significance and were being abandoned.

Background

In the ancient world cities were often fortified, especially if they were vulnerable to attack by outside forces. The purpose of these defensive walls was to protect the public; they were group strongholds. Over time, attackers developed techniques to penetrate these fortifications, ranging from scaling the...