Acid Rain
Acid rain can be defined as rain that has a pH less than 5.6, formed primarily through the chemical transformation of sulfur and nitrogen compounds emitted by anthropogenic sources. In addition, acidic compounds can be deposited as aerosols and particulates (dry deposition), and mists, fogs, snow, and clouds (wet deposition). Most scientists agree that the phrase acidic deposition is more appropriate when characterizing the overall problem, but acid rain is the most widely used term.
Robert Angus Smith (1817-1884), a Scottish chemist, first used the expression "acid rain" in 1872 when describing the acidic nature of rain deposited around Manchester, England. The problem was believed to be localized and confined to urban areas until reports appeared during the 1970s and 1980s describing widespread acidification of lakes in the northeastern United States, eastern Canada, and Europe. Additional reports surfaced regarding declines in growth and vigor of forested ecosystems throughout the world, with acid rain as the possible culprit. These findings resulted in several large research initiatives, including the U.S. government-funded National Atmospheric Precipitation Assessment Program.
Results indicated that pH in rainfall, mists, clouds, snow, and fog in the United States, especially the East, was generally below normal, and was due to an increase in industrial emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds transported to rural areas. Some lakes and streams were acidified and their productivity reduced by acid rain. Most lakes and streams that were acidified were located in the northeastern United States. The majority of forested and agricultural ecosystems were found not to be directly affected by acid rain. Certain high-elevation systems, such as red spruce in the northeastern United States, were reported as possibly being affected by acid rain, but many other factors were involved. Research findings resulted in increased environmental legislation, including the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments enacted by the U.S. Congress to significantly reduce sulfur emissions.
Since 1990, sulfur dioxide emissions have decreased 25 percent, resulting in a significant reduction in sulfate in rain and surface waters in someareas of the United States. Nitrogen compounds, however, have not decreased. The role nitrogen plays in acidification is currently of concern to the scientific community. Several forested ecosystems have been found to be nitrogen saturated. Also, it is hypothesized that acid rain has caused a depletion in base cations, mainly calcium, potassium, and magnesium, in the soils of several forested ecosystems making uptake of these essential minerals more difficult. Research is underway to investigate the effects of these problems on ecosystem function.
A branch from a tree in Germany's Black Forest showing needle loss and yellowed boughs from acid rain (top) compared to a branch from a healthy tree (bottom).Atmosphere and Plants.
Bibliography
Irving, P. M. "Acid Deposition: State of Science and Technology." In National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, 1990 Integrated Assessment Report. Washington, DC: 1991.
Krupa, S. V. Air Pollution, People, and Plants: An Introduction. St. Paul, MN: American Phytopathological Society Press, 1997.
NAPAP Biennial Report to Congress: An Integrated Assessment. Washington, DC: National Science and Technology Council, 1998.
Wellburn, A. Air Pollution and Acid Rain: The Biological Impact. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
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