For Muslims, living a righteous and productive life in this world is a means to achieving reward and happiness in the afterlife. A variety of impulses spurred Muslims to study geography and make sense of the world, including:

Qur'anic Injunctions: Verses such as "And He [God] has set up on the earth mountains standing firm lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that you may guide yourselves, and marks and signposts; and by the stars men guide themselves" (16:14-16) encouraged Muslims to expand their horizons.

Daily Worship: Muslims pray at five different times during the course of the day and night. Determining times for prayer in different parts of the empire required accurate astronomical observations and measurements of distances between locations.

The Hajj (Pilgrimage): Each year during Dhu al-Hijja (month of the pilgramage) in the Islamic lunar calendar, Muslims from...