Visual Arts and Architecture. The surviving artworks of Mesopotamia relate largely to royalty, especially the male ruler, or to wealthier members of the community. These elements of Mesopotamian culture include not only sculpture and painting but also religious and secular monuments and buildings, temples, and palaces. There are no Mesopotamian written accounts about art, but there are references in texts to the effort involved in artistic production and the experience of viewing the finished work. Mesopotamia was a crossroads for many different peoples during the three millennia from 3300 to 331 B.C.E. and, as a result, home to many forms of expression. Yet, what is perhaps most remarkable about Mesopotamian art is the great uniformity in its themes, symbols, and motifs—and perhaps also in some of the beliefs that inspired them. A major problem, however, is the identification and interpretation of many symbols or themes.

The...