We see clearly in Mo Ti’s and his followers’ ideas the influence of the changed times.  His principle of “universal love” reflects the breakdown of the clans and the general weakening of family bonds which had taken place.  His ideal of social organization resembles organizations of merchants and craftsmen which we know only of later periods.  His stress upon frugality, too, reflects a line of thought which is typical of businessmen.  The rationality which can also be seen in his metaphysical ideas and which has induced modern Chinese scholars to call him an early materialist is fitting to an age in which a developing money economy and expanding trade required a cool, logical approach to the affairs of this world.

A similar mentality can be seen in another school which appeared from the fifth century B.C. on, the “dialecticians”.  Here are a number of names to mention:  the most important are Kung-sun Lung and Hui Tzu, who are comparable with the ancient Greek dialecticians and Sophists.  They saw their main task in the development of logic.  Since, as we have mentioned, many “scholars” journeyed from one princely court to another, and other people came forward, each recommending his own method to the prince for the increase of his power, it was of great importance to be able to talk convincingly, so as to defeat a rival in a duel of words on logical grounds.

Unquestionably, however, the most important school of this period was that of the so-called Legalists, whose most famous representative was Shang Yang (or Shang Tzu, died 338 B.C.).  The supporters of this school came principally from old princely families that had lost their feudal possessions, and not from among the so-called scholars.  They were people belonging to the upper class who possessed political experience and now offered their knowledge to other princes who still reigned.  These men had entirely given up the old conservative traditions of Confucianism; they were the first to make their peace with the new social order.  They recognized that little or nothing remained of the old upper class of feudal lords and their following.  The last of the feudal lords collected around the heads of the last remaining princely courts, or lived quietly on the estates that still remained to them.  Such a class, with its moral and economic strength broken, could no longer lead.  The Legalists recognized, therefore, only the ruler and next to him, as the really active and responsible man, the chancellor; under these there were to be only the common people, consisting of the richer and poorer peasants; the people’s duty was to live and work for the ruler, and to carry out without question whatever orders they received.  They were not to discuss or think, but to obey.  The chancellor was to draft laws which came automatically into operation.  The ruler himself was to have nothing to do with the government or with the application of the laws.  He was only a symbol, a representative