Mencius (c. 372-289 B.C.) and Hsuen Tzu (c. 298-238 B.C.) were both followers of Confucianism.  Both belonged to the so-called “scholars”, and both lived in the present Shantung, that is to say, in eastern China.  Both elaborated the ideas of Confucius, but neither of them achieved personal success.  Mencius (Meng Tzu) recognized that the removal of the ruling house of the Chou no longer presented any difficulty.  The difficult question for him was when a change of ruler would be justified.  And how could it be ascertained whom Heaven had destined as successor if the existing dynasty was brought down?  Mencius replied that the voice of the “people”, that is to say of the upper class and its following, would declare the right man, and that this man would then be Heaven’s nominee.  This theory persisted throughout the history of China.  Hsuen Tzu’s chief importance lies in the fact that he recognized that the “laws” of nature are unchanging but that man’s fate is determined not by nature alone but, in addition, by his own activities.  Man’s nature is basically bad, but by working on himself within the framework of society, he can change his nature and can develop.  Thus, Hsuen Tzu’s philosophy contains a dynamic element, fit for a dynamic period of history.

In the strongest contrast to these thinkers was the school of Mo Ti (at some time between 479 and 381 B.C.).  The Confucian school held fast to the old feudal order of society, and was only ready to agree to a few superficial changes.  The school of Mo Ti proposed to alter the fundamental principles of society.  Family ethics must no longer be retained; the principles of family love must be extended to the whole upper class, which Mo Ti called the “people”.  One must love another member of the upper class just as much as one’s own father.  Then the friction between individuals and between states would cease.  Instead of families, large groups of people friendly to one another must be created.  Further one should live frugally and not expend endless money on effete rites, as the Confucianists demanded.  The expenditure on weddings and funerals under the Confucianist ritual consumed so much money that many families fell into debt and, if they were unable to pay off the debt, sank from the upper into the lower class.  In order to maintain the upper class, therefore, there must be more frugality.  Mo Ti’s teaching won great influence.  He and his successors surrounded themselves with a private army of supporters which was rigidly organized and which could be brought into action at any time as its leader wished.  Thus the Mohists came forward everywhere with an approach entirely different from that of the isolated Confucians.  When the Mohists offered their assistance to a ruler, they brought with them a group of technical and military experts who had been trained on the same principles.  In consequence of its great influence this teaching was naturally hotly opposed by the Confucianists.