The Yoruba language of Africa is another example of most lavish use of subtraction; but it here results in a system much less consistent and natural than that just considered.  Here we find not only 5, 10, and 20 subtracted from the next higher unit, but also 40, and even 100.  For example, 360 is 400 — 40; 460 is 500 — 40; 500 is 600 — 100; 1300 is 1400 — 100, etc.  One of the Yoruba units is 200; and all the odd hundreds up to 2000, the next higher unit, are formed by subtracting 100 from the next higher multiple of 200.  The system is quite complex, and very artificial; and seems to have been developed by intercourse with traders.[65]

It has already been stated that the primitive meanings of our own simple numerals have been lost.  This is also true of the languages of nearly all other civilized peoples, and of numerous savage races as well.  We are at liberty to suppose, and we do suppose, that in very many cases these words once expressed meanings closely connected with the names of the fingers, or with the fingers themselves, or both.  Now and then a case is met with in which the numeral word frankly avows its meaning—­as in the Botocudo language, where 1 is expressed by podzik, finger, and 2 by kripo, double finger;[66] and in the Eskimo dialect of Hudson’s Bay, where eerkitkoka means both 10 and little finger.[67] Such cases are, however, somewhat exceptional.

In a few noteworthy instances, the words composing the numeral scale of a language have been carefully investigated and their original meanings accurately determined.  The simple structure of many of the rude languages of the world should render this possible in a multitude of cases; but investigators are too often content with the mere numerals themselves, and make no inquiry respecting their meanings.  But the following exposition of the Zuni scale, given by Lieutenant Gushing[68] leaves nothing to be desired: 

1. toepinte = taken to start with. 2. kwilli = put down together with. 3. ha’[=i] = the equally dividing finger. 4. awite = all the fingers all but done with. 5. oepte = the notched off.

This finishes the list of original simple numerals, the Zuni stopping, or “notching off,” when he finishes the fingers of one hand.  Compounding now begins.

6. topalik’ya = another brought to add to the done with.
7. kwillilik’ya = two brought to and held up with the rest.
8. hailik’ye = three brought to and held up with the rest.
9. tenalik’ya = all but all are held up with the rest.
10. aestem’thila = all the fingers.
11. aestem’thla topayae’thl’tona = all the fingers and another over
above held.

The process of formation indicated in 11 is used in the succeeding numerals up to 19.

20. kwillik’yenaestem’thlan = two times all the fingers.
100. aessiaestem’thlak’ya = the fingers all the fingers.
1000. aessiaestem’thlanak’yenaestem’thla = the fingers all the fingers
times all the fingers.