Even the canonical works of the [’S]vetambara, as for example, the Achara[.n]ga (Sacred Books of the East, Vol.  XXII, p. 88-186) contain directions for nuns.  It seems, however, that they have never played such an important part as in Buddhism.  At the present time, the few female orders among the [’S]vetambara consist entirely of virgin widows, whose husbands have died in childhood, before the beginning of their life together.  It is not necessary to look upon the admission of nuns among the [’S]vetambara as an imitation of Buddhist teaching, as women were received into some of the old Brahmanical orders; see my note to Manu, VIII, 363, (Sac.  Bks. of the East, Vol.  XXV, p. 317).  Among the Digambaras, exclusion of women was demanded from causes not far to seek.  They give as their reason for it, the doctrine that women are not capable of attaining Nirva[n.]a; see Peterson, Second Report, in Jour.  Bom.  Br.  R. As.  Soc. Vol.  XVII, p. 84.] and under them the general community of the Upasaka “the Worshippers”, or the [’S]ravaka, “the hearers”.

The ascetics alone are able to penetrate into the truths which Jina teaches, to follow his rules and to attain to the highest reward which he promises.  The laity, however, who do not dedicate themselves to the search after truth, and cannot renounce the life of the world, still find a refuge in Jainism.  It is allowed to them as hearers to share its principles, and to undertake duties, which are a faint copy of the demands made on the ascetics.  Their reward is naturally less.  He who remains in the world cannot reach the highest goal, but he can still tread the way which leads to it.  Like all religions of the Hindus founded on philosophical speculation, Jainism sees this highest goal in Nirvana or Moksha, the setting free of the individual from the Sa[.m]sara,—­the revolution of birth and death.  The means of reaching it are to it, as to Buddhism, the three Jewels—­the right Faith, the right Knowledge, and the right Walk.  By the right Faith it understands the full surrender of himself to the teacher, the Jina, the firm conviction that he alone has found the way of salvation, and only with him is protection and refuge to be found.  Ask who Jina is, and the Jaina will give exactly the same answer as the Buddhist with respect to Buddha.  He is originally an erring man, bound with the bonds of the world, who,—­not by the help of a teacher, nor by the revelation of the Vedas—­which, he declares, are corrupt—­but by his own power, has attained to omniscience and freedom, and out of pity for suffering mankind preaches and declares the way of salvation, which he has found.  Because he has conquered the world and the enemies in the human heart, he is called Jina “the Victor”, Mahavira, “the great hero”; because he possesses the highest knowledge, he is called Sarvajna or Kevalin, the “omniscient”, Buddha, the “enlightened”; because he has freed himself