Genetic Research and Technology

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Co-discoverer of the molecular structure of DNA, James Watson (b. 1928) was born in Chicago on April 6, and became a controversial figure in debates about the social and ethical implications of genetic research. Watson received his Ph.D. in zoology from Indiana University in 1950. His partnership with Maurice Wilkins and Francis Crick led to the 1953 discovery of the complementary double-helix configuration of the DNA molecule, for which the three researchers shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine. In 1968 Watson was named director and in 1994 president of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, which he shaped into a leading center of research on the genetic basis of cancer. In 1988 Watson was appointed Associate Director for Human Genome Research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), where he initiated the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program as part of the Human Genome Project (HGP).

Although Watson continued his research, including important work on the function of messenger RNA (mRNA), his career shifted toward administration and the promotion of science (McElheny 2003). In these capacities, he confronted some of the political and ethical dilemmas born of his co-discovery of "the key to life." The subsequent revolution in genetics raised questions about the proper use of this new knowledge. Indeed, Watson on occasion made controversial and sometimes-contradictory statements on several of these issues, including recombinant DNA (rDNA) research, reproductive rights, and germline genetic therapy (see Watson 2000).

During congressional testimony in 1971, Watson expressed strong concerns about genetic engineering and reproductive technologies, and in the mid-1970s he played a role in establishing a moratorium on certain kinds of rDNA research. However, he later came to regret this position and even called critics of the research "a bizarre collection of kooks, sad incompetents, and down-right shits" (Beckwith 2003, p. 357). Watson defended a cornucopian attitude about the promises of genetic technologies to solve societal problems and dismissed public fears as irrational, Luddite paranoia.

In this regard, two of his strongest convictions about the use of genetic technologies were his libertarian ideology and a desire to engineer the human genome. First, he argued that society should not impose rules on individuals concerning their use of genetic knowledge. People should be allowed to make those decisions in private, especially women who are faced with difficult reproductive choices. Second, he maintained that germline gene therapy, despite its similarity to morally reproachable governmental eugenics programs, deserves serious consideration as a personal option because of the potential for human betterment. In other words, "If we could make better human beings by knowing how to add genes, why shouldn't we?" (Wheeler 2003). For Watson, the genome is a cruel limitation on the vast possibilities that scientists could create by manipulating human DNA.

Watson's most lasting legacy in the realm of the politics of science is his creation of the ELSI in the HGP carried out by the National Center for Human Genome Research Institute (NCHGI). In an "unprecedented experiment in American science policy," Watson unilaterally set aside 3 to 5 percent of the HGP budget to support ELSI studies of new advances in genetics with the goals of identifying and defining major issues and developing initial policy options (Juengst 1996).

It is difficult to decipher Watson's intentions in creating the ELSI program. He was quoted as saying, "I wanted a group that would talk and talk and never get anything done" (Andrews 1999, p. 206). Yet he also claimed, "Doing the Genome Project in the real world means thinking about [social impacts] from the start, so that science and society can pull together to optimize the benefits of this new knowledge for human welfare and opportunity" (Watson and Juengst 1992, p. xvi).

Most likely, Watson viewed the ELSI program as a form of enlightened scientific self-interest. It could create a social environment conducive to genetics research by aiding in the development of policies that prevent people from being harmed by the use of genetic information and technologies. In Watson's view, genetics research produces inherently valuable knowledge. As Juengst explains, "The question that the ELSI program addresses is the virtuous genome scientist's professional ethical question: 'What should I know in order to conduct my (otherwise valuable) work in a socially responsible way?'" (1996, p. 68). The societal buffer that the program creates may explain why Watson referred to the creation of the ELSI program as one of his top accomplishments. Although Watson created it on a whim, the ELSI program has had a lasting impact on the practice of science as similar programs are becoming common aspects of scientific research.

Genetic Research and Technology;; Human Genome Organization.

Andrews, Lori B. (1999). The Clone Age: Adventures in the New World of Reproductive Technology. New York: Henry Holt. Memoir touches on several of the most pressing issues in reproductive technology.

Beckwith, Jon. (2003). "Double Take on the Double Helix." American Scientist 91: 354–358. Review of DNA: The Secret of Life and Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution.

Juengst, Eric T. (1996). "Self-Critical Federal Science? The Ethics Experiment Within the U.S. Human Genome Project." Social Philosophy and Policy 13(2): 63–96. Comprehensive analysis of the ELSI program; surveys various critiques of the program and makes a case that its strength as a policy mechanism lies in its decentralized "un-commission" design.

McElheny, Victor K. (2003). Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Perseus. Authoritative biography of Watson, covering his scientific accomplishments, his impact on the scientific community, and his political and ethical views about the use of genetics in society.

Watson, James D., and Eric T. Juengst. (1992). "Doing Science in the Real World: The Role of Ethics, Law, and the Social Sciences in the Human Genome Project." In Gene Mapping: Using Law and Ethics as Guides, ed. George Annas and Sherman Elias. New York: Oxford University Press. The editors introduce the book by surveying the questions raised by new knowledge in the field of genetics and articulates the role of the ELSI program in the HGP.

Watson, James D. (2000). "Genome Ethics." New Perspectives Quarterly 17(4): 48–50. Outlines Watson's views on the ethics of genome research and demonstrates his strong materialist account of human origins and the implications of this philosophy for decisions regarding reproduction and the use of genetic technologies.

Wheeler, Timothy. (2003). "Miracle Molecule, 50 Years On." Baltimore Sun February 4, p. 8A. Surveys the implications of the discovery of DNA and Watson's life since then.

Watson, James D. (2000). "Genome Ethics." New Perspectives Quarterly 17(4): 48–50. Available from http://www.digitalnpq.org.

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