Overview

The modern system of notation, using ten different numerals including a zero and using position to denote value, appears to be the invention of Hindu mathematicians and astronomers, reaching its present form by the seventh century. The system became known in western Europe through the works of Islamic commentators whose works were translated into Latin. The Hindu-Arabic numerals, as they are now known, greatly facilitated arithmetic computations, particularly multiplication and division. They also allowed more rapid calculation of the mathematical tables needed for surveying, navigation, and the keeping of financial records and thus contributed to the extensive exploration and the growth of capitalism that characterized the Renaissance.

Background

One of the essential requirements for any type of mathematics is a means of representing quantities. At first, tokens might be...