SOLOMON, or, in Hebrew, Shelomoh, was the son of David and third king of Israel and Judah (c. 960–920 BCE). During Solomon's reign the united kingdom reached its greatest extent and height of prosperity. The account of this reign, in 1 Kings 1–11, is in its present form a collage of various historical and literary sources. Solomon's accession to the throne (1 Kgs. 1–2), portrayed as the result of palace intrigue and a struggle for power between two sons of David and their supporters, is part of the so-called court history of David. The hand of the Deuteronomistic historian, the author of the larger history of the monarchy in Kings, may be seen in his treatment of the theophany in 1 Kings 3:1–15 and its parallel in 9:1–9, in the account of the building of the Temple and its dedication (chapters 5–8), and in Solomon's failures and God's rejection of his rule over the northern state of Israel (1 Kgs. 11). This historian did make use of an earlier source, the "book of the deeds of Solomon" (1 Kgs. 11:41), which probably contained information on building activities and other royal undertakings gleaned from royal inscriptions. The basic history by the Deuteronomist was also embellished by later additions having to do with the greatness of Solomon's reign. The treatment of Solomon in 2 Chronicles 1–9 depends upon Kings, with some omissions and additions. The sources cited by the Chronicler, however, namely books by the prophets Nathan, Ahijah, and Iddo, are most likely fictitious.
Solomon's greatest achievement, according to the historian of Kings, was his building of the Temple and palace in Jerusalem (1 Kgs. 5–8). Originally the Temple was built as a royal sanctuary, one of many temples throughout the realm, but through the centralization reform of King Josiah (2 Kgs. 22–23) it became the only legitimate cult place in the kingdom, and it is from this perspective that the Temple's significance is treated in Kings. Solomon is also credited with the construction of major fortifications at Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer for the consolidation of his realm, and this building activity seems to be confirmed by archaeology. The Bible also suggests that the state prospered greatly from various commercial ventures, a fact attested by a marked rise in the level of the material culture of the land as evidenced by archaeological finds. Nevertheless, one must be cautious in accepting all that is attributed to Solomon's reign, for it is unlikely that he had political control over the whole region from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt or that his court and military force were as large as 1 Kings 5:1–8 (EV 4:21–28) states.
The biblical tradition celebrates Solomon's wisdom. The historian of Kings tells the story (1 Kgs. 3) of how Solomon experienced a dream theophany at Gibeon in which God granted him his request for wisdom in order to govern his people aright and, along with wisdom, gave him long life and prosperity. This gift of wisdom is then illustrated by a folktale in which Solomon makes a successful judgment between two mothers who claim the same infant. This theme of Solomon's wisdom is greatly expanded by later additions, including the story of the queen of Sheba's visit and other remarks about Solomon's great wisdom and wealth (1 Kgs. 10).
The Deuteronomist regards the decline of Solomon's realm and the ultimate division of the kingdom as the result of Solomon's marriages to many foreign wives. While these may have been diplomatic marriages made as a matter of state, the historian viewed them as encouraging the importation of foreign deities into the kingdom, thereby compromising the exclusive worship of Yahveh. A more immediate cause of political unrest and division of the kingdom is attributed to Solomon's heavy taxation of the Israelites, from which no relief was given by his successor, Rehoboam, a condition that led to Israel's revolt (1 Kgs. 12). The Chronicler refrains from any criticism of Solomon's reign.
On the basis of the statement about Solomon's composition of many proverbs and songs (1 Kgs. 5:12 [EV 4:32]), later editors of the Bible attributed to Solomon much of the Book of Proverbs as well as the Song of Songs. It also led to the composition of works in Solomon's name. The author of Ecclesiastes calls himself "the son of David," thereby suggesting his identity with Solomon. Two later Jewish works using Solomon's name are the Wisdom of Solomon, written in Greek in Alexandria, and the Psalms of Solomon, probably written in Hebrew in Roman Palestine. An early Christian work ascribed to Solomon is the Testament of Solomon.
Both the New Testament and the Qurʾān (sūrah 21:78–81) make reference to Solomon's wisdom, but it is especially in Jewish aggadah (Ginzberg, 1956) that his wisdom and career receive the fullest amplification. Solomon is made an expert in many fields of science as well as in occult and hidden wisdom. Many additional stories are told in the aggadah to illustrate Solomon's ability to judge wisely. Special attention is given to the building of the Temple and to Solomon's throne, which later becomes a prize of war transmitted from one invading kingdom to another down to Roman times. The aggadic tradition also tells about a period of humiliation that Solomon endured for his sins against the Law. During this time he was an outcast, and an impostor reigned in his stead until he eventually regained the throne.
The Solomonic tradition embraces the whole wisdom tradition, both in its worldly aspect and in its piety, and embodies all the fantasies about the past glory of the united kingdom of Israel and Judah at the height of its power.
Treatments of the history of Solomon's reign can be found in John Bright's A History of Israel, 3d ed. (Philadelphia, 1981), and in the contribution by J. Alberto Soggin, "The Davidic-Solomonic Kingdom," to Israelite and Judean History, edited by John H. Hayes and J. Maxwell Miller (Philadelphia, 1977). A discussion of the literary tradition can be found in Burke O. Long's 1 Kings with an Introduction to Old Testament Historical Literature (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1984). This also contains an extensive bibliography. For the aggadic traditions, see Louis Ginzberg's The Legends of the Bible (New York, 1956), pp. 553–578.
New Sources
Cazeaux, Jacques. Saül, David, Salomon: la royauté et le destin d'Israël. Paris, 2003.
Knoppers, Gary N. Two Nations under God: The Deuteronomistic History of Solomon and the Dual Monarchies. Atlanta, 1993.
Torijano, Pablo A. Solomon, the Esoteric King: From King to Magus, Development of a Tradition. Leiden and Boston, 2002.
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