Skeletons

Skeletons provide the framework for the bodies of most multicellular animals. They lend structural support to soft tissues and give muscles something to attach to and pull against. Without skeletons, most animal bodies would resemble a limp bag of gelatin.

Skeletons come in a number of forms, each suited for a particular set of lifestyles and environments. Skeletons can be rigid, semirigid, or soft. They can also be external or internal. Vertebrates have internal skeletons, called bony skeletons, which consist mainly of calcified bone tissue. Most invertebrates, such as insects, spiders, and crustaceans, have outer skeletons called exoskeletons. Some aquatic animals, such as octopuses, sea anemones, and tunicates, and a number of small, land-dwelling invertebrates such as earthworms and velvetworms, have soft supporting structures called hydrostatic skeletons.

Vertebrata (vertebrates) is an animal group that includes fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The vertebrate skeleton is an internal collection of relatively rigid structures joined by more flexible regions. The hard components of the skeleton are made up of bone, cartilage, or a combination of these two connective tissues.

Vertebrates are closely related to a number of less-familiar aquatic organisms, such as tunicates, sea squirts, and lancelets (Amphioxus). These animals have a skeleton composed entirely of a cartilaginous rod called a notochord. The notochord is somewhat flexible and runs along the back of the animal.

In all vertebrates, the framework first laid down during development is cartilaginous. As development proceeds, most of the cartilage is replaced by calcified bone through the action of bone precursor cells called osteoblasts. This process is called ossification. During ossification, some bones fuse together, reducing the total number of bony elements. At birth, human infants have over 300 bones. As adults, they have 206.

The bony skeleton of vertebrates consists of an axial skeleton and an appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is made up of the skull, spinal column, and ribs. This skeleton provides the general framework from which the appendicular skeleton hangs. The appendicular skeleton consists of the pelvic girdle, pectoral girdle, and the appendages (arms and legs).

Bony skeletons have a number of advantages over other types of skeletons. Because bony skeletons are living tissue, they can grow along with the rest of the body as an individual ages. As a result, animals with bony skeletons do not replace their skeletons as they grow older. Bone itself is a dynamic tissue that adjusts to the demands imposed by its environment and by its owner. Bone not only repairs itself when broken, but thickens in response to external stresses.

Bony skeletons are denser and stronger than exoskeletons and hydrostatic skeletons, and are able to support animals of a large size. By assuming a more upright posture, large animals can support a tremendous amount of weight on their skeletons. Internal skeletons are also less cumbersome in large animals than external skeletons would be. As an animal increases in size, its surface expands to an area that would be too large to be reasonably accommodated by an exoskeleton. All large, land-dwelling animals have bony skeletons.

Bony skeletons can respond to increasing weight-bearing demands by adjusting bone density and by distributing the weight through changes in posture. However, the bones of some animals have actually become lighter to accomodate other functions. Bird bones, which are hollow structures, constitute a mere 4 percent of the animal's body weight, compared to 6 percent in the mammals.

A major disadvantage to the bony skeleton, relative to an exoskeleton, stems from its internal location. Although certain elements of the bony skeleton, such as the skull and rib cage, provide protection to the soft organs they encase, the skeleton offers no protection to the other soft tissues of the body. External protection is therefore left to other structures, such as the skin and its associated hair, fur, and nails.

Exoskeletons are found in most invertebrates and assume a variety of forms. Some exoskeletons are made of calcium or silica, as seen in protozoa called foraminiferans. Exoskeletons can also be elastic, such as those worn by sponges, or hard and stony, like those secreted by coral. In contrast, mollusks (clams and snails) house themselves in hard shells comprised mainly of calcium carbonate.

When compared to bony skeletons, exoskeletons have two advantages. First, they provide a hard, protective layer against the environment and potential predators. And second, they protect their wearer against drying out, which is a great threat to land-dwelling species. It is important to avoid dessication because water molecules play an important role in many of life's critical physiological processes, including those related to digestion and circulation.

Insect, spider, and shellfish (lobster and shrimp) exoskeletons contain a compound called chitin, a white horny substance. These arthropods have segmented exoskeletons that bend only at the joints. The exoskeleton covers the entire surface of an arthropod's body, including the eyes. The thickness of the exoskeleton varies depending on the nature and function of the body part it covers. For example, the exoskeleton is thinner at the joints,which require a degree of flexibility in order to bend. The chemical composition of the exoskeleton also differs depending on location and function.

Insects have three principle body segments—the head, thorax, and abodomen—and six segmented legs. Each segment is curved and hinged to its neighbor. Spiders have a thorax and abdomen and eight legs. Their head is fused to their thorax. Other arthropods, including scorpions, centipedes, and shrimp, may have more body segments than an insect and more legs than a spider.

Exoskeletons have two major disadvantages when compared to bony skeletons. Because they are composed of a blend of rigid, inorganic substances, they cannot expand as their owner grows. Arthropods must therefore shed their exoskeletons periodically through a process called molting. A newly molted animal is vulnerable to attack by predators before its new shell hardens. The shell hardens through a process similar to the tanning of leather.

The second disadvantage of exoskeletons is that physical contraints limit the size attainable by animals that have them. As the animal gets larger, the size of the exoskeleton required to cover its surface area would render the covering heavy and cumbersome.

Hydrostatic skeletons are found mostly in aquatic organisms such as octopusses, jellyfishes, sea anemones, and tunicates. Although earthworms and velvetworms have hydrostatic skeletons as well. Bony skeletons and exoskeletons are made of relatively rigid substances, but hydrostatic skeletons contain no hard parts at all.

These soft, supporting structures have two components, a fluid-filled body cavity and a muscular body wall. Animals with hydrostatic skeletons move using the combined actions of these two features. They use the muscles of the body wall to squeeze fluid into other regions of the body cavity, allowing them to change shape. These shape changes allow the animal to extend parts of its body in the direction it wants to move and withdraw other parts from areas it is leaving.

One benefit that hydrostatic skeletons give to some soft-bodied organisms is an ability to take in important materials such as oxygen, water, and waste products through the skin. This eliminates the need for a separate transport system. It is beneficial for these animals not to have a separate transport system because transfer of these materials is a passive process, which means that energy does not need to be expended to take in oxygen, rid the body of waste products, and maintain the balance of water between the body and the environment. In addition, these skeletons are relatively light compared to bony skeletons and exoskeletons. This is beneficial because not as much muscle mass is required to move it. Hydrostatic skeletons work well in aquatic environments, but they would not be useful on land. They give little protection against drying out, and larger animals would be too flimsy to stand up on their own.

Bones; Cartilage; Chitin; Keratin.

This is the complete article, containing 1,288 words (approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page).