Radioactivity | Research & Encyclopedia Articles

Radioactivity originates from extraterrestrial sources and terrestrial geologic sources. All elements with more than 83 protons (i.e., an atomic number greater than 83) are radioactive. Some radioactive isotopes also occur in elements with lower atomic numbers.

Atoms that are radioactive emit radioactivity during spontaneous transformation from an unstable isotope to a more stable one. Natural radioactive decay provides a source of heating in Earth's interior that drives mantle dynamics and plate tectonics. Both natural and man-made sources of radioactivity at certain levels may represent a significant health risk to humans and other organisms. Radioactive materials must be isolated from the environment until their radiation level has decreased to a safe level, a process which requires thousands of years for some materials.

Radiation is classified as being ionizing or nonionizing. Both types can be harmful to humans and other organisms. Nonionizing radiation is relatively long-wavelength electro-magnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, visible radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and very low-energy electro-magnetic fields. Nonionizing radiation is generally considered less dangerous than ionizing radiation. However, some forms of nonionizing radiation, such as ultraviolet radiation, can damage biological molecules and cause health problems. Scientists do not yet fully understand the longer-term health effects of some forms of nonionizing radiation, such as that from very low-level electromagnetic fields (e.g., high-voltage power lines), although the evidence to date suggests that the risks are extremely small.

Ionizing radiation is the short wavelength radiation or particulate radiation emitted by certain unstable isotopes during radioactive decay. There are about 70 radioactive isotopes, all of which emit some form of ionizing radiation as they decay. A radioactive isotope typically decays through a series of intermediate isotopes until it reaches a stable isotope state. As indicated by its name, ionizing radiation can ionize the atoms or molecules with which it interacts. In other words, ionizing radiation can cause other atoms to release their electrons. These free electrons can damage many biochemicals, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids (including DNA). In intense radioactivity, this damage can cause severe human health problems, including cancers, and death.

Ionizing radiation can be either short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation or particulate radiation. Gamma radiation and × radiation are short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation. Alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and protons are particulate radiation. Alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays are the most commonly encountered forms of radioactive pollution. Alpha particles are simply ionized helium nuclei, and consist of two protons and two neutrons. Beta particles are electrons, which have a negative charge. Gamma radiation is high-energy electromagnetic radiation.

Scientists have devised various units for measuring radioactivity. A Curie (Ci) represents the rate of radioactive decay. One Curie is 3.7 × 10¹⁰ radioactive disintegrations per second. A rad is a unit representing the absorbed dose of radioactivity. One rad is equal to an absorbed energy dose of 100 ergs per gram of radiated medium. A rem is a unit that measures the effectiveness of radioactivity in causing biological damage. One rem is equal to one rad times a biological weighting factor. The weighting factor is 1.0 for gamma radiation and beta particles, and it is 20 for alpha particles. The radioactive half-life is a measure of the persistence of radioactive material. The half-life is the time required for one-half of an initial quantity of atoms of a radioactive isotope to decay to a different isotope.

In the United States, people are typically exposed to about 350 millirems of ionizing radiation per year. On average, 82% of this radiation comes from natural sources and 18% from anthropogenic sources (i.e., those associated with human activities). The major natural source of radiation is radon gas, which accounts for about 55% of the total radiation dose. The principal anthropogenic sources of radioactivity are medical x rays and nuclear medicine. Radioactivity from the fallout of nuclear weapons testing and from nuclear power plants make up less than 0.5% of the total radiation dose, i.e., less than 2 millirems. Although the contribution to the total human radiation dose is extremely small, radioactive isotopes released during previous atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons will remain in the atmosphere at detectable levels for the next 100 to 1000 years.

People who live in certain regions are exposed to higher doses of radiation. For example, residents of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado receive about 30 millirems more cosmic radiation than people living at sea level. This is because the atmosphere is thinner at higher elevations, and therefore less effective at shielding the surface from cosmic radiation. Exposure to cosmic radiation is also high while people are flying in an airplane, so pilots and flight attendants have an enhanced, occupational exposure. In addition, residents of certain regions receive higher doses of radiation from radon-222, due to local geological anomalies. Radon-222 is a colorless and odorless gas that results from the decay of naturally occurring, radioactive isotopes of uranium. Radon-222 typically enters buildings from their ground level.

Personal lifestyle also influences the amount of radioactivity to which people are exposed. For example, miners, who spend a lot of time underground, are exposed to relatively high doses of radon-222 and consequently have relatively high rates of lung cancer. Cigarette smokers expose their lungs to high levels of radiation, because tobacco plants contain trace quantities of polonium-210, lead-210, and radon-222. These radioactive isotopes come from the small amount of uranium present in fertilizers used to promote tobacco growth. Consequently, the lungs of a cigarette smoker are exposed to thousands of additional millirems of radioactivity, although any associated hazards are much less than those of tar and nicotine.

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has strict requirements regarding the amount of radioactivity that can be released from a nuclear power reactor. In particular, a nuclear reactor can expose an individual who lives on the fence line of the power plant to no more than 10 millirems of radiation per year. Actual measurements at U.S. nuclear power plants have shown that a person who lived at the fence line would actually be exposed to much less than 10 millirems.

Thus, for a typical person who is exposed to about 350 millirems of radiation per year from all other sources, much of which is natural background, the proportion of radiation from nuclear power plants is extremely small. In fact, coal- and oilfired power plants, which release small amounts of radioactivity contained in their fuels, are responsible for more airborne radioactive pollution in the United States than are nuclear power plants.

By far, the worst nuclear reactor accident occurred in 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine. An uncontrolled build-up of heat resulted in a meltdown of the reactor core and combustion of graphite moderator material in one of the several generating units at Chernobyl, releasing more than 50 million Curies of radioactivity to the ambient environment. The disaster killed 31 workers and resulted in the hospitalization of more than 500 other people from radiation sickness. According to

Ukrainian authorities, during the decade following the Chernobyl disaster an estimated 10,000 people in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine died from cancers and other radiationrelated diseases caused by the accident. In addition to these relatively local effects, the atmosphere transported radioactive fallout from Chernobyl into Europe and throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

The large amount of radioactive waste generated by nuclear power plants is another important problem. This waste will remain radioactive for many thousands of years, so technologists must design systems for extremely long-term storage. One obvious problem is that the long-term reliability of the storage systems cannot be fully assured, because they cannot be directly tested for the length of time they will be used (i.e., for thousands of years). Another problem with nuclear waste is that it will remain extremely dangerous for much longer than the expected lifetimes of existing governments and social institutions. Thus, future societies of the following millennia, however they may be structured, will be responsible for the safe storage of nuclear waste that is being generated today.

Atmospheric Chemistry; Atmospheric Pollution; Atomic Mass and Weight; Atomic Theory; Atoms; Atomic Theory; Carbon Dating; Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation; Environmental Pollution; Geochemistry; Radioactive Waste Storage (Geological Considerations); Radon Production, Detection and Elimination; Ultraviolet Rays and Radiation

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