Peter Lombard
PETER LOMBARD (c. 1100–1160), also known as Peter the Lombard, was a Christian theologian and teacher. There is little precise knowledge of Peter Lombard's origin except that he was born in northern Italy at Lumellogno in Novarre before 1100. Peter was a student at Bologna (or perhaps Vercelli) before he went to France to study, first in Reims and then in Paris and its environs (c. 1134). While it is believed that he returned to Italy, visiting Rome in 1154, all of Peter Lombard's professional life and work is associated with a career in northern France, especially Paris, where he taught at the Cathedral School of Notre Dame. By 1143 his reputation was widespread. Sometime in 1144 or 1145 he became a canon at Notre Dame, and his teaching continued to influence students, among whom were Herbert of Bosham and Peter Comestor.
Peter Lombard participated in two significant ecclesiastical investigations concerning the orthodoxy of the teachings of Gilbert of Poitiers; the first was held in Paris on April 21, 1147, the second at the Council of Reims on March 21, 1148. By 1156 Peter was archdeacon of Paris, and on June 29, 1159, he was consecrated its bishop. He died the following year.
Today only four works attributed to Peter are considered authentic: a collection of sermons, two biblical commentaries, and the Book of Sentences. The thirty-three sermons were composed by Peter during the twenty years that he exercised leadership in Paris (c. 1140–1160). Until recently, many of these were attributed to Hildebert of Lavardin. Peter begins each sermon with a scriptural citation, and his homilies, although clear and precise, give little evidence of the academic interest in exegesis as a science that was developing at the time. Instead, Peter's instructions emphasize a moral and spiritual exposition.
The same approach to exegesis appears to characterize the Lombard's first biblical commentary, on Psalms (Commentarius in psalmos Davidicos), completed by 1138. Peter follows the method of the teachers at Laon (northern France), glossing the biblical word with a series of patristic teachings. The prologue to the commentary, however, does include the accessus ad auctores formula (author, text, subject matter, intention, and modus tractandi) that had only recently been appropriated to scriptural exposition in some of the school works. But because this work shows no influence of the anonymous Summa sententiarum, which dates from circa 1137–1138, it is usually seen as an early writing of the Lombard.
Peter Lombard's Commentary on the Pauline Epistles (1139–1141) brings a new dynamic to his teachings. Although composed shortly after his work on the psalter these glosses reflect the doctrine and exegetical methods from the schools. For example, he includes a wider variety of patristic sources; and the contemporary teachings of both the Summa sententiarum and of Gilbert of Poitiers appear as well. In addition, the Commentary shows some influence of the discursive inquiry associated with the new theological method, which brought questions to the text in an effort to discern meaning. However, Peter Lombard remained a cautious theologian, and although this work is more didactic than its predecessor he continued to stress spiritual exegesis.
It is the Lombard's last major work, the Book of Sentences, that sets his teachings apart in the twelfth century. The text provided his students with a systematic and comprehensive presentation of Christian doctrine in an orderly and accessible format: book 1 examines the Trinity; book 2 discusses creation, grace, and sin; book 3 presents the doctrines of incarnation and redemption; and book 4 considers the sacraments and eschatology. Although the work is a concise synthesis, Peter's citations of authorities provided a vast range of critically selected resources on distinctions and questions that were pertinent and timely. Understandably, Augustine was favored; but accepted contemporary works were also included, such as the Glossa ordinaria, the Decretum of Gratian, and the Lombard's own scriptural commentaries. Peter also confronted the vigorous inquiry of the school theologians, such as Hugh of Saint-Victor, Peter Abelard, and Gilbert of Poitiers. Peter's responses to the issues offered a moderate, orthodox position and met the needs of the times more adequately than the numerous other collections available. The final form of the Sentences was completed by 1157 or 1158.
The significance of Peter Lombard for the development of theology is due to the place of the Sentences in the medieval curriculum. What the Glossa ordinaria did for scripture, and what Gratian's Decretum did for law, the Sentences did for Christian doctrine. Peter would, in fact, be remembered as the "Master of the Sentences." His student Peter of Poitiers continued to use the Sentences for teaching his own classes in theology, and in about 1222 Alexander of Hales officially incorporated the text into the course of studies at the University of Paris. Thenceforth all students were required to comment on the Sentences for a degree in theology. In this way, all medieval theologians became disciples of the Lombard, and the format, method, and distinctions of the Sentences continued to shape theology for more than four hundred years.
Bibliography
Critical editions of the Lombard's writings can be found in volumes 191 and 192 of J.-P. Migne's Patrologia Latina (1879–1880; reprint, Turnhout, 1975). His sermons, attributed to Hildebert of Lavardin, are edited in volume 171 of that series (1854; reprint, Turnhout, 1978). However, the best text of the Sentences is Sententiae in IV libris distinctae, 3d ed. (Rome, 1971).
A comprehensive and critical study of Peter Lombard's writings remains to be done. One standard reference for his life and teaching is the extensive essay by Joseph de Ghellinck, "Pierre Lombard," in the Dictionnaire de théologie catholique (Paris, 1903–1950). Several more recent studies have brought precision to this essay. For example, Philippe Delhaye's Pierre Lombard: Sa vie, ses œuvres, sa morale (Montreal, 1961) summarizes the major themes of the Lombard's writings: human nature, grace, freedom, the theological and cardinal virtues, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, sin, and penance. Ignatius Brady's major essay "Pierre Lombard" in the Dictionnaire de spiritualité (Paris, 1985) continues these scholarly efforts. Brady's article includes an extensive, up-to-date bibliography. Another significant resource is the journal Pier Lombardo: Revista di teologia, filosofia e varia cultura (Novarre, 1953–1962).
John van Dyk's study of the Sentences, "Thirty Years since Stegmüller: A Bibliographic Guide to the Study of Medieval Sentence Commentaries since the Publication of Stegmüller's Repertorium (1947)," Franciscan Studies 39 (1979): 255–315, updates previous bibliographies and compiles the best research on this text and its influence. Van Dyk's study includes many articles in English and organizes information into significant categories: texts and editions; philosophy, theology, history; and two indexes.
EILEEN F. KEARNEY (1987)
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