Mining | Research & Encyclopedia Articles

From the moment humans discovered stone tools and salt, they have been extracting and using materials from the Earth. Every American will utilize approximately 2.4 million pounds of mined materials during their lifetime (calculated from Mineral Information Institute statistics). In spite of people's dependence on the products of extractive technologies and their associated sciences, mining is a highly controversial activity surrounded by ethical, political, social, and legal issues. Mining focuses attention on the metaphysical relationship of humans to the Earth, on the impact of their activities on the environment and other species, on issues of equity and sustainability, on human rights and democracy.

Mining is the extraction of metallic or nonmetallic materials from the Earth. The full cycle of mining involves exploration for the material required; mining sensu stricto, which is the physical removal of material from the Earth; processing, which is usually required to concentrate or clean the ore; the health, safety, and environmental issues associated with the full cycle of mining activities; and appropriate closure of the site when mining is completed (National Research Council 2002).

Surface mining, where material is separated directly from the surface of the Earth, is the oldest and most common method of mining. Underground mining, where the material is extracted via tunnels dug into the Earth, is used to work deeply buried ores. Mining technology has evolved greatly, but the basic concept of removing rock or minerals from the Earth has remained constant since prehistory. Nonentry mining, by which the valuable components of the rock are extracted without physically removing the surrounding rock, is still at an experimental stage.

The many ethical, social, and political challenges associated with mining can only be addressed within the context of the prevailing philosophical view of the relationship of human beings to the Earth and its resources. From prehistoric time through the sixteenth century, many cultures regarded Earth as animate. Ores grew and matured in the uterus of the Earth; mining was an interference with the natural order and was often accompanied by myths and rituals (Eliade 1962). In the Western world, the organic view of nature was superceded by a mechanical model during the Scientific Revolution: The Earth is inanimate, and its resources should be exploited for the benefit of humans (Merchant 1980). In the late twentieth century, scientists developed holistic syntheses that integrate humans, other living beings, and Earth in an all-encompassing, interdependent Earth system. Some philosophers emphasize the importance of the humanities in understanding the full dimensions of the human–Earth system relationship (Frodeman 2003). These cross-disciplinary concepts are the basis for most modern interpretations of the place and responsibilities of mining.

Polarized positions on the ethics of mining are strongly developed and there have been few true dialogs on the subject. One early-twenty-first century attempt to foster communication is the Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development Project, which concluded that economic, social, environmental, and governance issues must be addressed appropriately by all participants in order to meet the conflicting demands of society for the products of mining while still maintaining sustainability (International Institute for Environment and Development, and World Business Council for Sustainable Development 2002). Finding mechanisms whereby all the stakeholders can be involved in negotiating acceptable practices and compensation for mining has proved difficult. Some nongovernmental organizations and companies have promoted formal or informal democratic fora, but they have been difficult to implement in areas lacking good governance or a history of citizen participation.

Mining is inherently inequitable. Earth resources are not distributed evenly, and mines can only be located where there are suitable resources. Many of the social and environmental consequences of mining are concentrated at the mine site even if the consumer or ultimate beneficiary of the mine product, or the wealth it creates, is far away. Resolving these inequities aresome of the major ethical and political challenges associated with mining.

A fundamental question concerns ownership and control of the mineral endowment. Does a nation, or a sovereign, or a dictator, own the mineral wealth of a country? Or is it instead the landowner, the owner of the mineral rights, the person or company who discovered the deposit, the artisan miners who may have worked the deposit, or the local community (however defined)? In many cases the owner of a mineral deposit is not competent to mine it. In capitalist societies the high financial risk of mineral exploration and mining is usually borne by corporations that also supply technical expertise, and in return expect a profit from their investment. Almost every country has devised a different formula for regulating mineral ownership and control, for calculating taxes, and for oversight of mining activities and their impact.

A mine may introduce large amounts of capital or people into an area, distorting the economic and social structure. Corruption may become a problem. Wars are fought over the control of resources, and illicit trade particularly in diamonds and columbite-tantalite has funded conflicts, such as those in Angola and Congo, in the twentieth and early-twenty-first centuries. Safeguarding the human rights of workers and local populations is also a concern. Disciplined and transparent governance by governments and companies is necessary to stabilize the impact of mining.

Economic analysis shows that the Earth is unlikely to run out of mineral resources in the twenty-first or twenty-second centuries, which is as far forward as such predictions can be made, but the total cost of mining (including environmental, social, and other external costs) may limit the willingness to produce minerals (Tilton 2003). The role of mining in sustainable development is controversial, and conclusions largely depend on what values or assets one wishes to sustain, and on the scale at which the question is examined. Tilton (2003) argues that mining can contribute to global sustainable development if the products and profits of present-day mining are used to provide other assets of equivalent or greater value to succeeding generations. Analyses that concentrate on preserving the lifestyle, economy, or environment of a particular location are more likely to conclude that mining is a temporary phenomenon which disrupts rather than sustains development.

Technological innovation may lessen the demand for mineral products and lower the environmental impact of mining, but intellectual innovation is also vital to resolve the social and cultural consequences of mining.

Acid Mine Drainage;; Development Ethics;; Environmental Ethics;; Sustainability and Sustainable Development.

Eliade, Mircea. (1978 [1962]). The Forge and the Crucible: The Origins and Structures of Alchemy, 2nd edition, trans. Stephen Corrin. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Frodeman, Robert. (2003). Geo-Logic: Breaking Ground Between Philosophy and the Earth Sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press.

International Institute for Environment and Development, and World Business Council for Sustainable Development. (2002). Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development. The Report of the MMSD Project. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.

Merchant, Carolyn. (1980). The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

National Research Council. (2002). Evolutionary and Revolutionary Technologies for Mining. Washington, DC: Committee on Technologies for the Mining Industries, National Academy Press.

Tilton, John E. (2003). On Borrowed Time? Assessing the Threat of Mineral Depletion. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.

International Institute for Environment and Development, and World Business Council for Sustainable Development. "Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development. The Report of the MMSD Project." Available from http://www.iied.org/mmsd/finalreport/.

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