magazine reflects a revolution in women’s thinking •
Woman’s Day adds articles on health and money management to help working women (1966) • Magazine advertisers begin profiling and segmenting readers (1970s)
1980–2000 ∼ The Youth Culture
Fashion industry creates Supermodels to conceal the fact that fashion is in a slump (1985–1987) / Top clothes designers cross over to the home decoration market (1990s) / Internet/Casual workplace dress is accepted (1990s)
MILESTONES: Public’s insatiability for intimate details about celebrities gives rise to paparazzi journalists (1980s–1990s) • Women’s magazines focus on questions of dating, sex, gays/lesbians, mental health, and health problems as well as fashion (1990s) • Trendy teen glossies, Teen Vogue, Cosmogirl, Teen People, Teen, and Elle Girl, publish frank articles about self-empowerment, racism, eating disorders, rape, sexual diseases, pregnancy, and depression (1995–2000)
Human beings have covered their bodies for longer than history records. Along with food and shelter, clothing is considered by social scientists to be one of the essential elements for survival. Clothing has been common to all people throughout all times. As part of the material culture, it reflects the social, psychological, technical, physical and aesthetic components of the culture that produced it. It also serves as an unspoken communication system that can indicate the status or rank, group membership, occupation, age, gender and spiritual affiliation of an individual.
Though the terms “clothing” and “fashion” have come to be used interchangeably, this is a twentieth century concept. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the material and labor requirements for garments meant that most people only possessed one set of clothing. This outfit was generally made of plain cloth as cheaply as possible. It was worn constantly and expected to last for years, with little concern given to style or appearance. Fashionable clothing differed between countries and social classes. Styles changed gently over decades, rather than seasons. The Industrial Revolution changed the status quo through the development of new machines and processes that took manufacturing from small, labor intensive shops to large-scale businesses capable of massive output in short periods of time. An enormous range of goods was suddenly available in greater quantities, at more affordable prices than ever before. Previously, men set fashion trends and women followed suit. Elaborate dress was impractical for the industrialist, so his attire evolved into the forerunner of the businessman’s suit that is worn today. Eager to display his success, he purchased a lavish home and beautiful clothes for his wife and children. Since the only thing a woman was allowed to own was her wardrobe, most women were interested in clothing.
New wealth did not arrive with good taste or knowledge of proper etiquette. Englishman Charles Worth created an entire industry by assuming the role of guide through the murky waters of polite society. He opened an atelier in Paris in 1858 and in contrast to the practice of the day, imposed his artistic ideas on design and dictated what his customers wore. He used his impeccable taste to advise the nouveau rich in developing an image appropriate to their financial position. He signed his work and presented a new collection every year, thereby introducing the factor of annual change into fashion. Other couturiers opened around him and the haute couture was born. Their clientele was wealthy and wanted to live and dress in the same style as the aristocracy. Garments were individual and made to measure. The fit was perfect, and each gown was a small work of art. All ladies of means sought the excellence of the haute couture, making Paris the center of world fashion.
The twentieth century witnessed the evolution, automation and democratization of fashion. In America, the anonymous little dressmakers and tailors who served the working classes evolved into a powerful industry with labor concerns and political clout. New technologies impacted textile development, manufacturing processes, information management, communication, distribution, advertising and consumer research. During the two World Wars, women assumed new roles requiring drastic change in their attire and redefining their traditional roles. The middle class expanded to a significant portion of the population, creating a large consumer market. Reacting to this, clothing was produced in greater abundance and at more affordable costs than at anytime in history. Dirty and ragged clothing virtually disappeared from all but the very poorest. Once a precious commodity that was included in wills, clothing became plentiful and disposable.
Several themes reoccur during the last century. Industrialization led to increased production of consumer goods and rising birth rates contributed to greater demand. Technology and invention literally changed the way people lived, and medical advancements heightened the quality of life. There were two World Wars, though the aftermath from each was markedly different. Class distinctions became blurred as education and income allowed people to climb the social ladder. There were periods when the young were the prevalent trendsetters and other times when maturity reigned supreme. At no other time in history has so much occurred in such a short period of time. In one hundred years, humans went from riding in horse drawn carriages, to walking on the moon, from pen and ink to email. The century that began with Queen Victoria ended with Victoria’s Secret.
1900 • Wealth and Plenty…for the Few ∼ The new century brought a “try everything” attitude. Queen Victoria’s 60-year reign was over and the rigidly proper repression that identified the era seemed to die with her. Optimism abounded as new inventions continued to make fortunes for entrepreneurs and life easier for consumers. Millionaires built mansions and sailed to Europe to have their wardrobes made by the French couture. The styles were copied in New York, Philadelphia and Chicago, but it was not the same as coming from the masters. Henry Ford revolutionized manufacturing with his automobile assembly line, and railroads spread across America. Everything from the permanent hair wave to the telephone, electric light and the automobile gained acceptance and changed the way people lived. Immigrants flocked to America, providing a cheap labor source.
Edward ascended the British throne in 1901. Though nearly 60 years old, he was the leading male fashion figure and widely copied and quoted. As a mature gentleman, he preferred a full figured lady, so a rounded silhouette became the desired look. The “Health” corset of the prior decade was often laced too tightly, causing the top half of the body to jut forward and the lower half to be thrust back. If nature had not sufficiently endowed a woman’s bosom, ruffles could be sewn inside her bodice for a more impressive display. The resulting ‘S’ curve shape was alluring, if not practical. The restrictive nature of the garment prevented ladies from engaging in any strenuous activities, rendering her useless for anything resembling work. Her social position and wealth were further advertised by the quality of her garments and accessories, and the number of servants employed to attend to the family needs.
Life was peaceful and pleasant for those who had money, and there was no shortage of social events. Etiquette books were published for the industrial millionaires, and their wives were determined to present fashionable figures, at any cost. Ladies traveled with multiple trunks and a weekend away could require as many as sixteen complete changes of clothing, including hats, gloves, shoes and jewelry. There were garments for the morning, for luncheon, for strolling in the garden, for receiving guests and for dinner. Naturally, all of these ensembles required the assistance of another person to don, as well as complicated care and maintenance.
1909 • The Demise of Corsets ∼ Alongside the mature woman, a new type of young woman was emerging. Depicted by the artist Charles Dana Gibson, and dubbed the “Gibson Girl,” she was strong, self-confident and independent. Able to make her living as a shop assistant, typist or governess, she was the forerunner of the modern working woman. Her participation in sports, especially bicycling, gave her freedom and took her away from the watchful eyes of a chaperone. Though Amelia Bloomer advocated a two-legged costume for riding, it was generally not embraced. The Gibson Girl favored a “tailor made” suit that consisted of a long skirt, a matching fitted jacket, and a shirtwaist blouse. Many of the blouses were made at home, but by 1909, 600 sewing shops employing 30,000 workers were manufacturing blouses in the U.S. Standard sizing became a necessity, as these garments were not made to measure.
Automobiles became more prevalent and Americans purchased ten million of them in the second decade. Motoring required a special set of clothing. The costume consisted of a long linen coat, known as a “duster,” huge scarves to tie hats on, dust proof veils, high button boots (for pushing the vehicle out of the mud when it got stuck), and goggles to protect the eyes. The outfit did as much to advertise affluence as the actual automobile. Once the automatic ignition was developed, driving would provide women with the freedom to go where they pleased, much as the bicycle had.
The popularity of the matronly figure died with King Edward. Primed by the youth of the Gibson Girl, the public was receptive to a new ideal. French couturier Paul Poiret provided an exotic vision with his designs. His muse was a vamp and a seductress and with her, he would shatter tradition. Inspired by the Ballet Russes, Arabian Nights and the Orient, he was known as the Sultan of Fashion. His fascination with the East resulted in kimonos, harem pants, caftans and turbans made from exotic silks and fabulous brocades inspired by artists Leon Bakst, Pablo Picasso, Gustav Klimpt and Paul Duffy. Famous for his parties, his designs worked as well as costumes as they did for dress. His styles allowed for a natural posture and underneath it was a slim, attractive figure clearly without a corset. His new designs had a V-neck, raised waistline and soft skirt flowing to the ankles. His dresses gave women a taste of freedom and comfort, but by 1911 his skirts had narrowed to the point of inhibiting stride. Women rejected the “hobble” skirt, but loved his bright colors after the pale pastels and overbearing black of the Victorian and Edwardian eras. He was the first designer to introduce perfume in an era where it was considered “fast.” Scandalized by the obvious decline in morality, ministers denounced the new neckline as vixenish and doctors warned of pneumonia, but women sat for hours with lemon soaked cloths around their necks to make their skin creamy white to accentuate the risqué necklines.
Poiret’s designs caused women to discard the corset. The ability to move, eat and breathe opened the possibilities for other freedoms. His clothing signaled the deliberate rejection of Victorian reserve and the enthusiastic embrace of the seductive Eastern trend. Makeup, previously not worn by “nice” women, became fashionable, resulting in a blurring of social lines. It was difficult to tell definitively what social group a person belonged to, and, in fact, ceased to matter in the pursuit of pleasure.
1911–1916 • Emerging Sexuality ∼ A clear sign of the change in attitude was a 1911 Lane Bryant advertisement. Though the New York Herald chose to place it in the back pages, it was the first time maternity wear was publicly advertised for sale. Such things were not acknowledged in Victorian times, much less in an open forum. Like the shirtwaist, the simple fit of the garment made it appropriate for mass manufacture. Birth control became available in 1913 with the introduction of the diaphragm and obtainable when Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in 1916. These three events indicate a new attitude toward sexuality and women’s activities. Though marriage and family would remain the only option for most women for several more decades, the diaphragm would give her control over biology.
1910s • Mass Production in Sweatshops ∼ The sewing machine was invented in the mid-1800s and gained immediate approval for its speed and evenness of stitch. It was adopted for producing uniforms quickly in the American Civil War. After that conflict, it was largely used to produce prison uniforms and garments for stevedores. Machine sewn clothing was not desirable, but demand for ready-made clothing increased steadily after the turn of the century. The success and convenience of purchasing simple garments that didn’t require elaborate fitting encouraged more people to buy things not specifically made for them. In the U.S., sweatshops continued to spring up to meet the demand, often taking advantage of new immigrants who came from Europe with sewing skills.
Working conditions in the garment industry were far less than optimum. Low pay, long hours with no breaks, poor light, little to no ventilation, and overcrowding were tolerated only because it was better than what many left behind. The concept of ergonomics would not arrive until well after the Second World War. After several years of struggle for a decent workplace, the terrible conditions were brought to public attention in 1911 when the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory caught fire. The factory was the largest blouse manufacturer in the country and one of the strongest voices against unions. Located in three floors of an old building, most of the doors were locked and the exits blocked by fabric awaiting construction. The sole fire escape was a deathtrap that ended in midair leaving only the windows as an escape route. One hundred and forty-six women perished in fifteen minutes. The ensuing public outrage gave impetus to a movement for legislation that would protect workers. Thirty-six new laws were enacted during the following three years addressing working conditions, vacations, sick leave, wage and hour standards. Although the International Ladies Garment Women’s Union (ILGWU) had been founded in 1900, this tragedy gave it sufficient publicity to make headway in their pursuit for fair labor practices. By 1915, clothing was the third largest industry in the United States, following steel and oil. While the upper class still had their garments custom made, this was a clear indication that the lower and middle classes were growing in economic strength.
1917–1918 • The Effects of War ∼ The outbreak of World War I brought women into the workplace on a large scale. With most men at the front, women took over the bulk of their jobs, working in farming, munitions factories, as drivers and as postal carriers. Many entered military service and wore uniforms for the first time. For those running family businesses, clothing took on an austere style. Leisure was considered unpatriotic and everyone found a way to contribute to the war effort. Seductive and sumptuous clothing and jewelry were put away in favor of more functional styles. Skirts became shorter and fuller for easy movement, and jackets took on a decidedly military flair. Their new roles as managers and decision-makers required clothing that was comfortable and practical and women liked the fact that the styles made them look serious and competent. Women’s suffrage was won in the U.S. in 1920, but in truth, was in practice during the war years.
1920 • Letting Go ∼ Tremendous changes occurred after the war. It was a time of defiance and instant gratification, of crime and glamour. Called the Era of Wonderful Nonsense, it was also a time of hope, idealism and a passion for life. Innovations brought new wealth and conveniences. Penicillin was discovered, as was King Tut’s tomb, and radio went commercial. Music gained wider audiences and public dancing was popular, if not exactly proper. Art Deco style gave everything a sleek modern look.
Disillusioned by the war and tired of hard work and deprivation, people wanted to have fun. Jazz was a new sound from America and the Harlem clubs where it was played were all the more attractive because of Prohibition. The young women who frequented the clubs were known as Jazz Babies or Flappers. Loath to give up the freedom women won during the war, they imitated a boyish look with cropped hair, flattened bust, and short, straight, drop waist dresses. Shoes were designed with dancing in mind, so most had ankle straps and were cut in such a way that they would stay on during even the wildest Charleston. Women smoked and they dieted to stay thin. Many of these young women worked and lived away from home, having no desire to be under parental supervision. With reliable birth control and the cure for venereal disease at hand, the flapper was able to indulge in free love. She sported red lips, dark kohl lines around her eyes, and darkened her brows with burnt matches. Seeing a potential market, Helena Rubinstein and Elizabeth Arden started the cosmetics business and by 1925 most women were using at least some makeup.
Artificial silk, later renamed rayon, was adopted for dresses, blouses, stockings and the skimpy undergarments beneath. The fiber was affordable, washable, comfortable and best of all, nearly weightless. It allowed a freedom of movement previously unknown so that unfettered young women could literally dance until they dropped. Fashion was now being dictated by fun rather than by function or style.
1920s • Older Women ∼ The reaction to the Roaring 20s by older women was mixed. Some followed the styles set by their daughters and nieces, while others clung to conservative prewar fashions and complained about the young driving, smoking and living on their own. In an attempt to return to propriety, Marshall Fields in Chicago wouldn’t hire women with shorter than shoulder-length hair, and there are stories of young women being suspended or fired for cutting their tresses. Men generally didn’t like the crop style so many women pretended that their hair was accidentally burned by a candle or oil lamp and thus had to be cut.
Men became quite dapper during the 20s. Accustomed to the relative ease and comfort of uniforms, they rejected the stiff Victorian style clothing in favor of softer fabrics and looser cuts. As university education became more prevalent, young men in Ivy League schools contributed new fashion trends like “plus four” golf knickers and wide legged Oxford bags (loose pants worn over athletic shorts) visually bragging about their sports ability. They brought European styles home from their vacations and sports competitions and followed what the handsome Prince of Wales wore. Like him, they required silk pajamas, brown suede shoes, red ties, knitted Fair Isle vests, Panama hats and Windsor knots for ties. Unlike their sporty counterparts, female university students often wore Dutch boy haircuts, berets and smocks and frequented the Left Bank in Paris or Greenwich Village in New York.
It was common for women to wear pants during the war for functional reasons. Afterward, they were largely abandoned though a small group of Paris intellectuals, including Colette, Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas, occasionally sported clothing worn previously only by men: blazers, shirts and ties with cufflinks, lounging robes and dinner jackets.
There was a population shift after the war as farm machinery replaced some of the need for manual labor. People moved to the East Coast cities looking for manufacturing work, and by the mid-1920s, the population in cities was larger than that in the farmlands. Having been away from home to serve in the war made moving to the city more acceptable as families had become accustomed to being separated. It was the beginning of the mobile society. Long factory hours created pale white skin, once the sign of a genteel person, so tanning became a sign of leisure, travel and class.
1925–1929 • Assembly-line Production The horror of the war, the booming economy, the emphasis on youth and the newfound independence of women contributed to a frenzied pace. Fashion reflected this with an abundance of clothing available for immediate purchase. Factories set up to produce uniforms switched to fashion clothing after the war. The new straight shaped styles made for much easier manufacturing so ready to wear clothing was increasingly accepted. Machinery and the small electric motor helped in mass production. Cutting knives, ironing and pressing machines and plentiful labor increased the speed. By the 1930s, assembly lines had streamlined production and engineering and efficient management meant that clothing was sold in ever growing numbers to department stores, offering all prices and styles to customers of all ages and tastes. Mail order catalogues and magazines brought fashion awareness to every household, no matter how remote. Store-bought clothing offered the cache of being modern, so the independent seamstress gradually lost popularity. France was the only country that retained its couture industry and it remained the center of the fashion world.
1930–1935 • The Depression Years ∼ The United States stock market crash and ensuing depression affected the entire world. Foreign businesses catering to American buyers suffered as their markets dried up. As many as 10,000 people were unemployed from the French fashion industry. Many people found they had lost everything in an instant. One fourth of the American labor force was jobless and thirty billion dollars was wiped from the U.S. economy. American fashion came to a screeching halt as attention turned to the grave matters of mass unemployment and financial ruin. The flapper dress disappeared and was replaced by conservative adult clothing. The decade long party was over and it was time to grow up. Security and maturity were equated in the public mind and people were anxious for safety. Skirt lengths dipped below the knee and garments had classic styling designed with years of wear in mind. If new clothing was not affordable, old ones were lengthened. Insets of lace, ribbon or other trims conquered a shortage of fabric. The ideal look was a slim, feminine figure, which was sporty and had a natural beauty. The hips were slim and the bust line natural, if a little on the low side. This was a step toward the feminine by no longer flattening the bosom, but not yet emphasizing it either. Comfort and movement were important because working outside the home was common, even if it was volunteer work.
Shoes, hats and costume jewelry became the major accessories and a way of updating appearance for those who could afford little else. Shoes tended to be a focal point because of the longer length of the skirt. Hats could be somewhat silly, perhaps as a gesture of humor in otherwise grim circumstances. Elsa Schiaparelli produced hats that literally looked like upside down shoes or a pork chop perched on the head. These surreal hats are an example of determined optimism that better times were just around the corner. Since even those who still had money considered extravagance in poor taste, costume jewelry was accepted and worn in great abundance.
Those who managed to retain their wealth had the good taste not to flaunt it. They frequented resorts like Palm Beach and Monte Carlo where the sporty clothes they wore were the first to combine comfort with style. Some entertained in private homes where they enjoyed modern art and furniture inspired by Art Deco and the Cubist movement. Their clothing was long, sleek and cut on the bias grain to conform to the body.
1930s • Movie Stars ∼ Movies provided an escape from the deprivation of the Depression. As many as 85,000 Americans attended theaters every week. It was the beginning of a love affair that would last for decades. Actors provided their own wardrobe in 1920s films, and searched endlessly for slim lines to counteract the ten pounds added by the camera. As the movies grew in popularity, major stars were clothed by the Paris couture, though they would hire inhouse designers like Travis Banton, Edith Head and Adrian after the 1929 stock market crash. Hollywood stars became the American royalty and what they wore, how they lived and every detail of their personal lives provided escape from the harsh reality of hard times.
Clothing became more casual in general, in the style of Katharine Hepburn and Greta Garbo. The down side of movie impact occurred when Clark Gable revealed that he wore nothing under his shirt in It Happened One Night (1933), and men’s undershirt sales took an immediate dive. But, Marlon Brando revived T-shirts and made them a hot outerwear item in the 1951 movie A Streetcar Named Desire. Movie stars were not the only fashion role models. Notorious Bonnie Parker, of Bonnie and Clyde fame was known for her sweaters, skirts and beret.
1930s • Sports ∼ As the depression lifted, sports became a major part of life. Cycling, tennis and golf were popular, while the well heeled enjoyed motoring and aerial sports. Particular clothing was designed for each activity and the freedom and comfort of sports clothing pervaded the haute couture. Lighter weight fabrics and comfortable knits that were produced for the playing fields became popular for casual wear, and design houses offered fashionable clothing with a decided sporty feel.
1935–1939 • Copying Couture ∼ In the later part of the 1930s Americans once again looked to Paris for fashion. Manufacturers sailed to France on the Normandie so often that it was nicknamed the 7th Avenue shuttle. Department store buyers would pay a deposit in order to gain entrance to the collection presentations. This amount was deducted once they purchased either a finished design or a pattern with complete directions for fabrics and construction details. This way, American stores were able to offer customers “original copies.” As often as not, though, groups of store representatives would examine a garment repeatedly, each one memorizing a specific area. Later, they would work together to recreate the design and produce it without permission. These copies were in turn copied, so the finest couture style eventually was produced in a watered down version in cheap fabric for the lowest end of the market.
1925–1950 • Synthetic Fibers: Stockings and Polyester ∼ The Federal Trade Commission in 1925 officially recognized manmade textile filaments. Originally an effort to produce artificial silk, there were as many as four varieties of manmade fibers on the market. Confusion developed among both garment manufacturers and consumers about the different properties of each. Some ironed easily, while others melted upon contact with the iron. Some faded faster than others did and some dried quickly. In the 1950s, the nomenclature separated the fibers into rayon, defined as 100 percent cellulose, which had a cottony feel and could be washed and ironed, and acetate, defined as a cellulose compound, which was silkier and required dry cleaning.
Recognizing that new development would contribute to company growth, DuPont supported Dr. Wallace H. Carothers in a long-term research project. While working in the lab, one of the lab assistants grabbed a stir stick out of a thick molasses-like mixture of liquefied chemicals. Clinging to the stick, it followed him across the room in a long fiber. Once cooled, the filament could be drawn out to several times its original length and possessed remarkable strength and sheen. Though Carothers concentrated on nylon, others would take some of his work on polymers and develop it into polyester in the next couple decades.
Within a few years, the new fiber, nylon, had been manufactured into ladies stockings. They were an immediate success with supposedly, 780,000 pair sold the first day they were available. Unfortunately, they went off the market almost immediately as the U.S. entered World War II and it was discovered that nylon was a suitable replacement for silk in parachutes. After the war, nylon was used for men’s shirts, but the dense weave made them unbearably hot, and they were widely discarded.
1935–1939 • Society in Flux ∼ Political upheaval in the mid-1930s made for uncertain times. Fascism was rising in Italy, Stalin was making waves in Russia, and there were rumors of coming war in Europe. In the U.S., a high school teacher was put on trial for teaching the theory of evolution and Washington was rocked by scandals. Fashion was mixed, with no clear direction. Men’s clothing was still inspired by the Prince of Wales and the preferred suit was one with a nipped-in waist to show off his athletic physique. Those associated with criminal activity felt compelled to look tough, so their suits were exaggerated, with broader shoulders and even narrower waists.
Jazz musicians influenced African American men by developing individual styles, from the impeccably dressed Louis Armstrong to the beret-wearing Dizzy Gillespie. As early as 1934 women’s clothing took a turn to the severe. The shoulders became increasingly wide, either with added shoulder pads, or puffy sleeves and these were worn with shorter, full skirts. The feminine lower half was somewhat contradicted by the strong, broad-shouldered upper half, indicating that women were shouldering more responsibilities and burdens. By the time World War II was declared, women’s dress seemed uniform-like.
1941–1945 • World War II ∼ Before the war, American designers worked for manufacturers who produced clothing under a company name. Paris styles had been their major source of inspiration, so once World War II broke out and France was occupied, the U.S. designers were forced to look at home for ideas. Several couturiers fled Europe and opened up shop in New York bringing an international flavor, though the industry would embrace one of its own as the reigning queen. Hailed as the Mother of American Fashion, Claire McCardell designed clothes intelligently for the American career woman. Recognizing that life was different in the U.S. than in Europe, her garments were practical and comfortable. Easily packed mix-and-match separates solved travel problems by reducing the number of outfits required to look acceptable. They were characterized by affordability, freedom of movement and comfort. She used common fabrics in new ways, cutting pillow ticking into dresses and using gray flannel for evening gowns. McCardell was the first designer to prove that clothing didn’t have to be expensive to be fashionable and attractive. Her concept of designing clothing for the way people really lived was the defining moment of the American Fashion Industry, and Americans would never look to Paris in quite the same way.
Directed by the Germans to continue, the French couture industry struggled to produce new creations. Those who offended the Germans were closed down. Shortages of materials, as well as money to purchase and occasion to wear further stymied their efforts. Gallows humor prevailed as they named their garments “False Alarm,” “Offensive,” and “Occupation Evening Gown.” The French later explained that these extreme clothes were their effort to make the women of the victors look ridiculous.
1941–1945 • War-time Restrictions ∼ With all goods and resources in the rest of the western world being funneled into the war effort, fashion once again came to a halt. The British Board of Trade went so far as to bring out regulations for “Utility Clothes.” Manufacturers were forbidden to use more than a stated amount of fabric, or to produce more than a specified number of new styles each year. In the U.S., cuffs, vests, a second pair of suit pants (the two pant suit was common prior to the war as pants always wore out faster than jackets) and evening clothes were forbidden for men by Law 85. Women were not allowed evening clothes, hoods, shawls, patch pockets, cloth belts, pleats, long or full skirts, deep hems or complicated garment backs. The restrictions resulted in shorter wool sox for men, and shorter, narrower skirts, small, close-fitting sweaters, three-quarter length coats and bobby sox for women. People were urged to mend, patch and make do. Old clothes were recut and even blankets were made into coats. Popular styles included berets because they didn’t require elastic, wooden soled wedgies, gabardine shoes and handbags and shoulder bags so emergency medical supplies could be carried. Hair was one of the few things not in short supply, so women copied the Veronica Lake style of shoulder-length hair falling provocatively over one eye.
Noncompliance was seen as a lack of patriotism and sparked conflict when suits with exaggerated proportions were worn in Harlem and Los Angeles. Sported by young black and Hispanic men, the “Zoot” suit had baggy cuffed pants, an overly long jacket and wide shoulders that seemed to make a mockery of the wartime restrictions. The overt machismo may have been a blustery insistence that the wearer was still manly, despite not being enlisted. The War Production Board banned the garments.
A strong military flavor pervaded even civilian clothing, making everyone feel part of the war effort. Women returned to work in droves and adopted pants for factory work. Hoping to impress the women they worked with, men adopted sport shirts and slacks for work, rather than their customary work shirts or coveralls. Though fashion per se was out, styles worn by military heroes became popular. The down-filled jacket designed for aviators by Eddie Bauer is still today a fashionable item. General Eisenhower popularized a short belted jacket with a turned down collar, while the British favored General Montgomery’s knee-length duffel coat with wooden toggles and windbreakers copied from the British Royal Air Force. Designers supplied new markets by working on uniforms for women in the military, coveralls for defense factory workers, and costumes for patriotic Broadway shows.
The war touched everything and would forever change the way people lived. In Europe, the wealthy were deprived of servants as the working class was either drafted or enlisted. Those not in military service engaged in work connected with the war effort. Many of these occupations provided uniforms, and vast numbers of lower class people experienced relatively good clothing for the first time. The uniforms erased all mark of background, education and former occupation, blurring the line between the classes. Once peace returned many of these former servants entered new occupations and the tradition of families being in service for generations came to an end, making society even more cognizant of a changing civilization.
1947 • Dior’s Revolutionary Designs ∼ Though the war ended in 1945, the shortages did not. Everything was at a premium, from clothing to gasoline and restrictions were not lifted in the U.S. until 1946 and in Britain until 1949. Tired of wartime deprivations, Christian Dior, a young French designer introduced his “New Look” in 1947. The style could not have been more different from the efficient suits and dresses worn at the time. Dior’s designs emphasized a rounded, feminine shoulder, plunging V neckline, full bust, tiny waist and long full skirt. Complicated undergarments were required to give the silhouette the proper shape, from pushup or padded bras to corsets that cruelly cinched the waist. The garment itself emphasized the small waist either by padding out the hip line or using petticoats under the skirt. The look was completed with small flowered veiled hats, high-heeled shoes and matching bags, colored gloves and pearl necklaces. Some of the skirts required as much as 20 or 25 yards of fabric, which was attributed to Dior’s backing by a textile company. The reaction was mixed. Some women loved the femininity while the blatant excess outraged others. There were reported stoning incidents, while 1,300 women in Dallas, Texas formed the Little Below the Knee Club, and 700 women in Louisville, Kentucky signed a petition against the New Look. In Britain, women felt it was an obvious move to reclaim the seat of fashion power, since they were still operating under wartime restrictions.
Neiman Marcus bestowed upon Christian Dior their prestigious Oscar of Couture award and invited him to the U.S. While visiting in 1947, Dior was so appalled by the copies of his designs that he agreed to produce a ready-to-wear line for the store. This was significant because it was the first time authentic designer clothing was available off the rack. He opened a boutique in New York and when he introduced hosiery in 1948, he became the first designer to license his name.
Out of uniform and back in the work force, men returned to wearing suits. They celebrated the end of cloth rationing by adopting rather excessive styles. The double-breasted suit was popular, with broad shoulders and wide, peaked lapels. Trousers were cut with full legs and cuffs returned.
Whether for or against the New Look, it did clearly signal that the war was over and it was time to get back to living. The overtly feminine shape was a renunciation of the male role women had assumed during the war. With a shortage of marriageable men, the shapely style likely played a part in the mating rituals that were the precursors to the Baby Boom of the following years.
1950s • The New, Post-war Society ∼ As the soldiers returned home and picked up the pieces of their lives, it was obvious they were not returning to the world they left. Too much had changed. The world was ready for restoration and people were eager for a return to sanity, when roles were clearly defined and everyone knew what was expected of them. They were anxious to marry, settle down and find happiness. Only now, they also wanted a share of the good life and to enjoy the same things as the upper class. Having seen the world, many soldiers were determined to improve their station in life. The G.I. Bill helped countless veterans go to college and buy homes. Suburban developments offered amenities like driveways, yards, and built-in closets and families left city neighborhoods in droves. Single family home ownership in the 1950s was at an all time high.
The 50s, called “Everyman’s Decade,” marked the beginning of mass consumerism. As wartime factories converted to peacetime output, all things seemed within reach. Manufacturing increased 60 percent between 1945 and 1958. Luxuries like vacuum cleaners, refrigerators and washing machines, were easily available. Mass manufactured ready-towear garments, synthetic fabrics, and department stores made it possible for the masses to copy the styles of the wealthy.
Most women left their wartime jobs, willingly or not and assumed the roles of wife, mother and homemaker. Having time and money, new events and activities like bowling, cocktail parties, coffee klatches, and barbecues became part of their lifestyle. Clothing specially designed for each activity was required and women were expected to be attired immaculately at all times. Many a wife rose before her husband to dress, arrange her hair and apply makeup, lest he should have to see what she really looked like. Reminiscent of the late 1800s, women were once again visible proof of their husbands’ success. Throughout the day, she might change several times, depending on her agenda. Insecure and self conscious, people were willing to conform in order to be accepted.
The rules of right and wrong were pivotal to social advancement. Magazines provided “help” by dictating long lists of “correct” fashions as well as complicated rules of behavior and social interaction. Movies and television contributed to the perfection fantasy by portraying women managing homes and caring for children in pearls and heels with never a hair out of place. Few women were able to accomplish this without some level of stress and anxiety. This was the façade that would shatter and lead to the women’s movement in the 60s.
For men, the 50s businessman became the Man in the Grey Flannel suit. The look started by Ivy League graduates was a suit that had natural shoulders, three buttons and narrow lapels. It was soon adopted by working men trying to fit in and work their way up the corporate ladder. Dubbed the “sack suit,” it reflected the conservative and narrow thinking of the day. His female counterpart was also conservative and likely to wear a cashmere twin set, tweed skirt, pearls and gold circle pin. With Senator Joseph McCarthy’s Red Scare raging, patriotism was vital and conformity was a requirement.
1945–1962 • Shopping Centers ∼ The growing population led to a growth in retail. The booming economy, expansion of manufacturing and the availability of merchandise allowed stores to open new branches and merge with other stores, creating conglomerates. There were about 1,000 department stores in 1899, and more than 4,000 by 1950. The first mall opened in 1924 in Kansas City, and as downtown shopping areas became clogged with traffic and parking became a problem, businesses moved out into strip malls. Sears, Roebuck and Montgomery Ward opened free standing branch stores outside of downtown areas in the 30s and 40s, and joined other retailers in the mall setting in the 50s. In 1956, Victor Gruen built the first fully enclosed shopping center in Minnesota. Offering year round comfort, department stores as anchors and a center court, it was the birth of the modern mall. It replaced downtown as the place to shop, meet, browse and socialize.
Though discount stores had been in existence since Edward Filene opened a basement to sell his father’s off price goods in 1908, discount stores came into their own after World War II. Ben Franklin was Samuel Moore Walton’s first store in 1945, followed by the Walton 5&10 in 1950. He and his brother J.L. “Bud” Walton opened WalMart in 1962 and it is now the world’s largest retailer. Mass manufacture and discount outlets led to a visual improvement among the lower classes. Clothing was so available and affordable that dirty, torn garments all but vanished except among the very poor. Many companies provided lockers at work, so people commuted back and forth in more acceptable street clothes.
1958–1959 • The Italian Influence ∼ Italy emerged as a fashion force at the end of the 50s. Long known for beautiful fabrics, the postwar Italian government focused on free trade and their new film industry. Sophia Loren helped promote the sultry Italian look and American women clamored for sandals, Capri pants and sunglasses. Travel was affordable and Italian shoes, bags and gloves were a bargain for tourists. An advance in steel technology allowed for a narrow, yet strong spike to be installed in a shoe. The stiletto heel was responsible for ruining countless floors and carpets, not to mention feet. The high thin heel forced the wearer up on the ball of her foot and caused the calf muscle to tighten. As she tottered along, her hips swayed from side to side, presenting a sultry figure. The Italian men’s suit was adopted by “Rat Pack,” actors Frank Sinatra, Peter Lawford, Sammy Davis, Jr. and Dean Martin and parlayed into the continental look. This shapely suit would battle the Ivy League sack suit as the most popular style for several years.
1950–1959 • Clothes for Children and Teens ∼ Manufacturers expanded their range of clothing categories to address the needs of the vast numbers of children. Previously sold in infant or children’s departments, fashion for the young expanded into ranges that included newborns, infants, the more mobile toddlers, preteens and teenagers. Families were large and hand-me-downs were common.
As the first wave of the baby boom generation approached teenage years, marketers realized that between their allowance and part-time jobs, young shoppers had a considerable amount of disposable income and composed an increasing segment of the market. Teenagers became a recognized consumer group and there was a mad scramble to provide goods designed with them in mind. Saddle shoes were popular for the teen girl, as was the poodle skirt. Interest in ballet made dancewear a popular look. Television also provided fashion news with the smash hit “American Bandstand” influencing a generation of teens.
A growing number of dissatisfied teens chafed against the conformist and unimaginative setting of the 50s. Influenced by music, movies and the free and easy lifestyle documented by Beat generation writers Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, they deliberately rejected the era’s consumerism. They dressed in the jeans, white T-shirts and black leather jackets like James Dean in Rebel Without a Cause (1955) and Marlon Brando in The Wild One (1954). An alternative persona was the Beatnik who dressed in black; berets, bulky pullovers, tights and lots of eye makeup for her, and leather jacket, jeans, work shirts and black clothes for him. They hung out in coffee shops, smoked and read existential literature and fancied themselves above the constrictive lifestyle of their parents. As children of affluence, it was easy to sneer at society’s efforts at better living standards. They had never endured war, shortages or been hungry.
The 1959 introduction of the Barbie doll created a public debate that is still going on. While detractors criticized Mattel for presenting an unattainable body standard, supporters pointed out that Barbie was the first grown up image for little girls to play with. Before her, dolls were babies or little girls, putting the child in the mothering role. Barbie was an adult who represented what a girl might strive to become. She had her own car and house and a wardrobe that included professional outfits for being a fashion designer or nightclub singer. Later ensembles showed her as pilot and NASCAR driver. While Barbie has had numerous wedding dresses, Mattel has never manufactured children for her.
1960s • Society in Turmoil ∼ The 1960s brought more upheaval and change than any other decade of the century. John F. Kennedy would not live long enough to see how correct he was in his inaugural speech when he spoke of the new “frontier of the Sixties, a frontier of unknown opportunities and perils, a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threat.” The country enjoyed a strong economy, but was torn apart by political strife and the assassinations of John F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr. Space exploration resulted in the first walk on the moon only a few years after minorities marched to Selma, Alabama demanding equal rights. Young people protested the war in Vietnam, and showed up a million strong at Woodstock, a music festival held in upstate New York in 1969. The introduction of the birth control pill allowed sexual freedom at the same time pantyhose allowed hemlines to rise high above the knee. The sheer numbers of the young made them a force with which to be reckoned.
As the youngest president and first lady in history, the Kennedys were sophisticated and elegant. Jackie symbolized style with her simple suits, Halston pillbox hats, pearls, low-heeled shoes, gold chain bags and large sunglasses. Anything she wore became fashionable, from sleeveless dresses to Pucci prints. Though a lover of French couture, it was a political necessity to designate American Oleg Cassini as her official designer. She instructed him to make sure all her dresses were original so no one would have exactly the same dress as she. Countless women around the world copied her style.
There have always been clashes between generations as the young seek to establish their own identity. As the baby boomers came of age, one-third of Great Britain was under 20 and one-half of the U.S. was under 25 years old. They looked to one another for inspiration and ideas, while rejecting materialism, the gray flannel authority figure, and the restrictive and conformist 50s. They lived by the pleasure principle and wanted to try everything. While united in a general departure from their parents’ lifestyles, their search for new identities had several outcomes.
1961–1965 • Anti-establishment Clothing: From the Beatles to Twiggy ∼ The popularity of the Beatles brought the international spotlight to England and many adopted the Mod style of mop hair and Edwardian cut jackets, while the Rolling Stones presented an edgier street chic. Londoner Mary Quant had opened her boutique Bazaar in the 50s, and started designing clothing in the 60s when she couldn’t find what she wanted to appeal to the young. She is credited with creating the miniskirt, which was an instant hit with girls who didn’t want to dress like their mothers. The flapper dress of the 20s is somewhat similar to the 60s mini. Both garments skimmed the body, without revealing the underlying curves, and both were youthful fashions that would be adopted by older women. But the flapper wanted a boyish figure and male privileges, while the 60s girl was rejecting the conformity of her corset-clad mother. Sixteen-year-old, ninety pound model Twiggy epitomized the new ideal of youthful innocence. The simplicity of the mini dress was in direct contrast to the constructed dresses, body shaping underwear and spike heels of the 50s. The strong influence of British music and fashion was known as the “British Invasion” and the “Youthquake.”
1965–1969 • Protest and Fashion ∼ Those who were politically motivated embraced the faded and worn denim of workers and cowboys as a symbol that they were concerned with issues more important than appearance. There was tremendous rage against The Establishment as the young protested politics, lack of civil rights and women’s rights. “Black is Beautiful” became a statement of ethnic pride and Afro hairstyles became popular, as did dashikis, wide collarless shirts and caftans, a trend that would continue into the 70s. Black models like Naomi Sims gained acceptance in Paris and New York.
The protest against the war in Vietnam moved from the fringe to the mainstream in just a few years, and wanting to fit in, the demand for denim far outpaced the supply. Since old was better than new, people went to great lengths to make their jeans look as though they had been worn for years. They were washed repeatedly, beaten with rocks, dragged behind cars, pelleted with shotgun fire and even buried for short periods.
Hippies were social dropouts who rejected commercialism and espoused a return to nature. Some did overindulge in marijuana and LSD, but others banded together to live peacefully in communes, largely abandoning modern conveniences. There was a desire to wear as little clothing, underwear or makeup as possible. Both men and women let their hair grow long, and the men often grew beards. Clothing was frequently unisex, and from the back, it was often not possible to discern gender. Ethnic clothing, love beads, handmade tie-dyed shirts and hip-hugging bell-bottomed blue jeans were almost a uniform. Dressing alike was more about identification with each other than rejection of identity. “Flower Power” and “Make Love, not War” was the sentiment of this peaceful group.
1963–1969 • Women’s Liberation ∼ Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique (1963) struck a chord with many dissatisfied women. Frustrated and exhausted by the demands of 50s perfectionism, a growing number of older women rejected the confines of society and started demanding equal rights. The younger generation had no desire to follow their mothers’ path into subservience. The 50s bra became the symbol of male dominance and many young women burned or discarded their bras in the 1960s. This had a tremendous impact on the fit of clothing, as well as on the sales of the undergarment industry. In an effort to provide a compromise, some manufacturers offered a lightweight, stretchy garment that gave breasts a natural look. Some women expressed their freedom by wearing “see-through” blouses with (or without) a bra. No longer supported, the bust line dropped and the lack of underclothing became clearly evident. By the decade’s end, even store mannequins had a natural bust and erect nipples.
1969–1974 • Fashion Rebellion ∼ In 1969, The Gap opened. The name referred to the generation gap and the store catered to the baby boomers, offering Levi’s and records for sale. It launched its own jeans line in 1974, but continued to carry Levi’s for several years. The owner recognized that the young did not want to shop in the same stores as their parents, or dress the same way. Numerous other clothing manufacturing chains for the youth market would follow the Gap. The highly successful company now owns Gap Kids, Baby Gap, Banana Republic and Old Navy.
The youthful styles were adopted by nearly all ages. Even grandmothers shortened their skirts and selected less constructed clothing. Since this was the opposite of elaborately built Parisian garments, haute couture lost many customers and would flounder for several years. Reluctantly accepting reality, several couturiers opened ready-to-wear lines and offered accessories for sale. Others refused to accept the trends. The beloved Balenciaga declared that “Fashion has become vulgar” and closed his French and Spanish salons.
Fashion went through many incarnations and wild swings in the 1970s. Lacking any clear profile, the fragmented looks caused it to be labeled the “decade that taste forgot.” Music was responsible for much of the visual clamor as David Bowie strutted his stuff as Ziggy Stardust, Elton John sported wacky glasses and wild costumes and Kiss and Alice Cooper took stage makeup to the extreme. At the decade’s end, a wave of rap and hiphop developed in the South Bronx with the B boys and the Fly Girls, who popularized athletic clothes, track suits, gold jewelry and chunky gold necklaces called “dukie ropes.” Tom Wolfe called it the “Me” decade referring to its excess, hedonism and self-indulgence. The birth control pill allowed sexual freedom and the drug culture became a mass phenomena. Taste and propriety were deliberately defied as people wore garish colors and extreme styles and rejected classic clothing.
The hippie lifestyle became more mainstream with the “granny” look. Sporting long hair, little round wire frame glasses and beautiful lace trimmed long dresses, these garments were either dug out of attics, found in vintage stores, or lovingly recreated. Health food, back to nature, vegetarianism, and world peace was part of their ideology.
1968–1975 • Expressing Ideology ∼ Anti-fashion was still a strong message for those involved in political struggles. The Vietnam war, civil rights and the women’s movement concerned them more than their appearance. Unfortunately, as the issues gained widespread support, people attracted to the popularity of the causes, rather than the causes themselves, joined the protesters. A social conscience was a requirement and those lacking one were made to feel shallow and selfish. Consequently, second hand jeans, the preferred uniform, became scarce and more expensive than new jeans. Textile manufacturers developed processes for stone washing, acid washing and otherwise making new jeans look acceptably used, as though the wearer had been protesting for years rather than weeks.
T-shirts became the top counterculture status symbol. They were billboards for logos, political slogans, jokes and brand names. The Watergate crisis inspired “Don’t Bug Me.” Parisians preferred T-shirts with American university names and crests, while people from Los Angeles liked rhinestone encrusted shirts for the dance floor and New Yorkers liked hot dogs from Nathan’s. “Keep on Truckin” was one of the most famous. T-shirts from concert tours advertised one’s taste in music.
The emphasis on youth continued and people strove to look young and be young. Considered trashy and low-class in the 50s, the use of hair dye increased from 7 percent to 70 percent in ten years, as Clairol bragged on the naturalness of its color with the advertisement “Does she or doesn’t she? Only her hairdresser knows for sure.” Diets and exercise became increasingly important as most women wore styles like ultra short hotpants and bikinis. The undergarment industry was dealt a further blow when pantyhose replaced girdles. Football quarterback Joe Namath appeared in a TV commercial wearing a pair, convincing women that if Hanes can make his legs look good, just think what it would do for theirs.
Mid-1970s • Manmade Fabrics ∼ The oil crisis in 1973–74 caused the economy to drop. There was a real concern that this would cause a shortage of the oil-based polyester fiber. It was popular because it did not shrink, fade or require ironing. Manmade fibers accounted for almost half of manufacturer consumption. Inflation and rising costs caused garment manufacturers to seek production facilities in Third World countries and free trade zones. This triggered unemployment in the American textile and garment factories. Imported goods were boycotted, but most people couldn’t resist the lure of cheap goods. Popular looks included turtlenecks, Halston sweater dresses, blouses with neckties, wide collars, clingy mid-length shirt-dresses belted at the waist, gaucho pants with boots, neutral tones, crocheted bags, hats and scarves for women and the now despised leisure suit for men. Both genders wore tight printed unisex shirts and tight flare bottom pants that evolved to skintight, tapered styles later.
Mid-1970s • Who Wears the Pants? ∼ Hem lines dropped, as skirts really couldn’t get any shorter. The calf length midi and the floor length maxi length fought with mini until women abandoned skirts altogether. Pant sales increased as dress sales decreased. Pantsuits became accepted in the workplace and androgyny helped blur the line between men and women. Television’s “Charlie’s Angels” became the symbol of liberated women in a traditionally male role. The show reinforced the braless look and hair stylists everywhere copied Farrah Fawcett’s close fitting feathered hair.
Young men growing up as baby boomers were so confused about what to wear that John Malloy published Dress for Success in 1975. This became a bible for those interested in working for corporate America and advised men how to shop so they would present a serious business image. Like the “how to” books of the late 1800s and the 1950s, the formula was widely adopted and created an era of look-alikes reminiscent of 50s conformity. He later published a companion book for corporate women, though it did not enjoy the popularity of the male version.
Yves St. Laurent is considered the designer of the decade for his work in presenting the mindset of the day. He produced day clothes with a masculine quality that coincided with women’s rising power in the work force. He also designed fantasy collections like his Ballet Russes of 1976 and the Chinese collection in 1977. He is credited with making the gypsy and peasant look popular. YSL was one of the first couturiers to introduce a ready-to-wear line and take inspiration from street clothing. Along with several other women’s designers, he began to design for men in the 70s.
1970s • Movie-star Fashions, Jeans, and Punk ∼ Movies defined the decade. Saturday Night Fever (1977) made disco clothes popular, and sequined, sparkly, attention grabbing body conscious clothing was the rage. It had a profound impact on fashion, so by the decade’s end, even Barbie was wearing slinky disco duds, hot pants or granny dresses. American designers like Betsey Johnson, Stephen Sprouse, Stephen Burrows and Norma Kamali helped push the disco rage.
Other movie fashions included the crocheted hat and scarf from Love Story (1970), the funk (enormously flared pants and shirts open to the navel) look from Shaft (1971) and Superfly (1972), cornrow braids from 10 (1979), and the Annie Hall (1977) oversized shirts under vests and neckties, loose skirts, baggy khakis and men’s hats. American Graffiti (1973) and Grease (1978) triggered a brief 50s revival. Dapper James Bond remains one of the most popular movie icons, from the stylish Sean Connery to the handsome Pierce Brosnan, influencing generations of hopeful Don Juans with his designer suits and sportswear that seems to go “everywhere.”
Calvin Klein revolutionized jeans by reshaping the cut, putting his name on the back pocket, using dark, crisp denim and charging the outrageous sum of $48. They were an instant craze. Worn so tight that it took two sales clerks to zip them, many women literally could not sit down in them. Since the cost was common knowledge, they conferred immediate status on anyone willing to spend that much on jeans. Sexy advertising showed models proclaiming “me and my Calvins.” It was the start of the designer craze for the masses and became the most sought after garment of the season. Other designers followed with high fashion jeans, but none gained the prestige of Calvins.
Toward the end of the decade, the Sex Pistols brought the Punk rock movement from London. Their look of bondage pants, kilts, spider web sweaters and T-shirts with offensive messages, Doc Marten boots, ripped army surplus clothes, safety pins, multiple piercing and lots of metal spikes, chains and studs expressed their desire to shock, and replaced hippie love and peace with sex and violence. As the look was adopted in Great Britain and the U.S. by rebellious youth, it advertised their poverty, aggression and leisure. The look ultimately spread to the mainstream though and made black leather popular again.
The decade ended with a plethora of styles in everyone’s closet. Like the chameleon, people changed their look as it suited their mood and for the first time had a mixed wardrobe. No longer willing to follow Paris’ dictates, America and Italy challenged France in design. Fashionable people around the world appreciated the clean simple sportswear of Ralph Lauren, Anne Klein, and Perry Ellis. Bill Blass, Oscar de la Renta, and Geoffrey Beene dressed the “ladies who lunched,” while Dianne Von Furstenberg’s wrap dress landed her on the cover of Newsweek. Halston’s customers loved the liquid jersey and cashmere he used in his unconstructed separates.
A major shift began in the fashion industry in the 70s as large companies bought out smaller ones. Family-owned concerns became part of conglomerates and profit demand soared to the detriment of the consumer. The trend continued into the next decade and over borrowing and spending caused the demise of several venerable department store chains like B. Altman and Bonwit Teller.
1980s • Glamour for the Reagan Years ∼ An obvious sign that the population was aging was the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan. Twenty years after electing the youngest president, America elected the oldest. The Reagans ushered in an era of conservative elegance and the message that wealth and consumption were once again acceptable. A size six, former actress Nancy Reagan was a clothes horse and loved designer clothes and black tie events. Glamour was back, and black was touted as one of the top three colors for daywear (Mrs. Reagan preferred red) and one of the top ten colors for evening wear.
Romanticism reemerged when Diana Spencer and Prince Charles were married in 1981. Their fairy tale wedding was the dream of all young girls and her dress was the most popular design to sell for the next several years. As a public figure, everything Diana wore was photographed, discussed and ultimately copied. Her untimely death in 1997 raised her to near sainthood, causing the prices of her auctioned clothing to bring astronomical prices.
The “Dress for Success” practice of the 70s became the “Dress to Impress” look of the 80s. Power dressing and appearance were so important that politicians and industrialists hired consultants to help them achieve the proper image. Department stores created the personal shopper to assist their customers and manuals like The Preppy Handbook and Dress for Excellence were the 80s versions of the proper “how to” guides.
While manufacture and consumerism have largely defined the twentieth century, the 80s were the true decade of the designer. Consumption was conspicuous and logos and labels were worn on everything from underwear to coats. People lived lavishly and spent money on clothing like never before. Sophisticated marketing put designers in front of the public and their names became household words. They became recognizable celebrities, much photographed and followed. With so much to choose from, clothes were often discarded before they were barely worn. Resale shops offered gently worn clothes and new houses boasted walk-in closets.
Personified by the yuppie (young urban professional), the successful 80s businessperson, of either gender, favored the suit. For men, the shoulders were broad, but made of soft fabrics that gave a nod to femininity. Female yuppies wore both skirt suits and pantsuits. They were sharply tailored and used enormous shoulder pads in the early 80s, though they adopted a more natural shoulder line later in the decade. This established them as serious and competent, much like the tailored clothes worn by working women in the World War I. Sexy and beautiful underwear was popular as a way to remind themselves of their femininity. Garter belts and stockings returned, but were soon relegated to the boudoir because of the discomfort and inconvenience for daytime.
1980s • Film and Oriental Influences ∼ Movies continued to influence fashion. Flash Dance (1983), Perfect (1985) and Rocky IV (1985) sent the entire generation to the gym seeking to get in shape. Athletic clothes became fashion statements and were worn on the street as often as they were working out. Out of Africa (1985) spawned safari wear, Top Gun (1986) popularized Ray-Ban sunglasses and reinforced the cachet of the leather flight jacket and Crocodile Dundee (1986) introduced the Aussie outback hat. Michael Douglas in Wall Street (1987) was the role model for the successful yuppie trader, while TV’s “Miami Vice” created a demand for casual T-shirts and unstructured jackets. “Dallas” and “Dynasty” provided a glimpse into the exclusive lifestyle of millionaires.
Presenting fashion in an entirely different way, Japanese designers gained popularity in the 80s. Using the body as a base, they moved interesting and textured fabrics around it, creating a new silhouette. Though Kenzo and Hanae Mori appeared in Paris in the 70s they were somewhat traditional. Issey Miyake, Rei Kawakubo, Yohji Yamamoto and several others offered an alternative to western fashion and created the first major departure in fashion in decades.
1980s • Gender Blending ∼ Gender roles blurred again as rock stars like Boy George, Prince and Michael Jackson proved that vanity was not restricted to women. The movies Victor/Victoria (1982) and Tootsie (1982) begged the question of what was masculine, what was feminine and where was the line between? The dominant female star was Madonna and there was no doubt about her gender. Though she wore men’s boxer shorts in Desperately Seeking Susan (1985) and changed personas like most people changed socks, she was thoroughly female. By adopting a shifting image, she showed women that they could be who or whatever they wanted to be with (or without) clothing and makeup.
In search of the perfect body, plastic surgery became an accepted beauty-enhancing practice. Breasts and lips were enlarged and waists, hips and thighs were reduced. Circles and lines were erased and noses, ears and chins were reshaped. Eyeliner could be tattooed on and eyelashes could be dyed for a more permanent solution. The cosmetic industry provided creams, lotions and elixirs to rejuvenate, conceal and improve ones appearance. Department stores provided professional makeup artists to demonstrate how to use their products, as makeup changed from enhancing appearance to designing faces and creating a variety of “looks.”
1980s • The Influence of Black Culture ∼ An important part of 80s fashion was the contribution by the black youth culture. Rap and hiphop led to the emergence of break dancing. In the consumer spirit, break-dancers favored comfortable sportswear and brand name athletic shoes. The dance style and the homeboy style of baggy pants gained popularity across all classes; suburban white kids quickly imitated by wearing their baseball caps backwards and shoeing up in Reeboks, Nikes or Adidas.
1985–1989 • AIDS and Supermodels ∼ In 1985, the World Health Organization declared AIDS an epidemic. Fashion designers and illustrators died in large numbers and the industry would be decimated before safe sex practices slowed the spread of the disease. A crossed red ribbon became the symbol of the fight against AIDS and a memorial for those who died.
With the 1987 stock market crash, the high flying, free spending 80s were over and high end fashion houses were some of the first places to feel it. The supermodel phenomenon was the creation of clever marketing to try to disguise the fact that the luxury market was in trouble. Basically anonymous until Twiggy in the 60s, media hype allowed models to attain celebrity status and command enormous fees. They virtually overshadowed the clothes they were supposed to be showing. Replacing reclusive Hollywood actresses as objects of fascination, the models kept glamour alive and helped hide the fact that fashion was in a slump. Rumors of inflated egos and non-cooperation, along with cutbacks put many of the models out of work in the early 90s.
1980s • Fashion Shows and Professional Models ∼ It’s hard to imagine anonymous models after the media blitz of Naomi (Campbell), Christy (Turlington) and Linda (Evangelista), but models were not always familiar faces. Fashion photography appeared toward the end of the nineteenth century and actresses, dancers and society ladies were featured in magazines modeling fashions. At the couturier salons, it was usually shop assistants or occasionally the designer’s wife who showed the clothing. In the mid 1890s, English designer Lucille (Lady Duff-Gordon) was the first couturier to hold a live model show, the forerunner of what is done today. No lady would parade herself in public, so Lucille hired six girls from middle- and lower-class London to wear her dresses. Runway presentations became popular, though the models were said to have questionable reputations and were even compared to prostitutes.
French designer Jean Patou created a public relations furor in 1925 when he auditioned 500 American women looking for professional models. With the help of a panel of Vogue magazine associates, Patou selected six women to take back to France with him. The models were dressed in capes with a large initial P on the back, using designer initials for the first time. The modeling career has evolved since then. Vogue magazine has used primarily professional models since World War II and there are several well-established agencies that train, schedule and promote models.
The growth of the advertising industry has put models in front of the public, selling everything from cosmetics to cars. The models have become media personalities, often generating more press coverage than the clothing they wear. Along with the fame, came exorbitant paychecks and in some cases, difficult attitudes. Once the free spending 1980s were over, elaborate fashion shows and high priced models became a thing of the past in the U.S. In Paris, the haute couture shows are just that—elaborate performances that draw full houses. Though it is estimated that there are fewer than 500 regular couture customers, the shows are still well attended. Touted as a place for experimentation and a vehicle for promoting fragrance and ready-to-wear, the twice-yearly Paris shows amaze and delight.
As showy designs were again frowned on, basics became acceptable and fashion pared down for good value in classic, conservatively cut clothing. Technology had improved rapid information flow, so designer clothes could be copied and made available faster than ever before, making fashion very uniform across all price lines. The more basic designer-level clothing was, the easier it was to replicate, the main difference being the quality of the fabrics used. Even jewelry, hair, and makeup became very minimalist. Black and gray were the predominant colors, in keeping with an atmosphere of sobriety. “Less is more” defined the mood. Naturally, the slow-down in consumer spending served to make designers more cautious in their styles. In a downward spiral, people bought less, designers offered increasingly conservative styles, which consumers already owned, so they bought less. The young, relating to grunge music from Seattle, adopted an anti-fashion look of sloppy, frumpy clothes, clunky boots, and greasy hair.
1990s • Bulging Waistlines ∼ Major changes occurred in mid-decade as several couture houses changed ownership. In efforts to rejuvenate the haute couture, young new designers took the helm of Gucci, Lanvin, YSL and Dior who brought out clothing with a strong youth message. Realizing that another large generation was on the way to maturity, American design also became more youth conscious, producing small, fitted clothes. A baby doll look was largely rejected, but many women did accept the body shaping and smoothing undergarments that made the closer cut fashions more attractive. At the same time, Lycra has been introduced into almost all clothing for a comfort factor.
Running counter to the youth and small clothing trend is the fact that 68 percent of Americans are overweight and becoming more so. In the ten years between 1980 and 1990, the average man at 5′9″ tall went from 173 pounds to 180. His female counterpart at 5′4″ tall weighed 144 pounds in 1980 and 153 in 1990. The demand for plus size clothing geared to all ages and price ranges is a continuing challenge.
Politics was not removed from fashion in the 90s. Much of the discussion around trade concerned import/export regulations, tariffs and quotas specifically aimed at the textile trade status with China, sweatshop labor, and child labor issues abroad. And anyone who endured months of the Clinton impeachment news will never look at blue dresses or berets in the same way.
Textile technology has played an enormously important role in the last decade. Smart fabrics provide comfort through stretch, breathability, shape and appearance retention and ease of care. They can lift, shape and support and are flameproof and anti-microbial when necessary. They can keep one warm, cool or dry and protect from the sun, or tan through, if desired.
1990s • Home Decoration Fashion ∼ Sobered by the 1987 stock market crash and the spread of AIDS, the 90s came in quietly. The home became the center of security and comfort and people turned their resources into building cozy nests. Ralph Lauren and Laura Ashley had been in the home fashion arena since the 70s, and others followed, recognizing the trend. Whether involved in the actual design and manufacture or licensing, several familiar apparel names like Calvin Klein, Donna Karan and Tommy Hilfiger crossed over to capture the lucrative market.
Communication technology has simply changed the way we live. Home offices allow employees to stay home and teleconference, fax or email their work. The impact of this on the consumption of work clothing remains to be seen. But many companies have agreed to loosen their traditional dress codes, with Casual Fridays. Some companies have adopted a daily casual policy. While useful for communicating with the office, the Internet has become a major player in retail sales. The concerns that “e-tail” would replace brick and mortar establishments have not proven to be founded. Yet, sales using the Internet went up 200 percent in the second half of 1998. Details regarding credit card number theft, returns, shipping times and garment fit still need to be addressed. Or, the convenience of ordering from a company across the world at midnight, in one’s pajamas, may train the consumer to deal with the problems much like consumers learned to fight for mall parking places during the Christmas rush.
Starting in the 90s, fashion for the masses has become less about a designer’s artistic ideas than about a company’s desire to manufacture goods that the public will buy. Consumers are carefully divided into markets and studied to better understand what products appeal to them. Their age, education, income and lifestyle are only a few of the characteristics that market research firms view. Through a process that includes surveys, consumer focus groups and instore interviews, researchers provide manufacturers and retailers with information about their different segments of society. Using that information and the services of trend forecasters, color companies and collection reports, they try to provide items that will sell to their customers.
The prevailing major change of fashion in the twentieth century is its move to the masses. High fashion and haute couture will always belong to the wealthy, but technology has allowed every person to adopt whatever appearance they choose. It is the eternal struggle between craving social acceptance and security and retaining individual liberty and self-expression.
Supplementary Information
The Little Black Dress
Look in the closet of any American woman and you are sure to find at least one, if not several simple, black dresses. Produced in endless fabrics and variations, the “Little Black Dress” arguably has been the most constant item of women’s apparel for nearly 100 years.
As early as 1915, Coco Chanel was promoting a simple, elegant black dress for both day and evening. Her early versions used traditional fabrics of lace, silk, tulle and embroideries, but her ingenious cutting made the garments masterpieces of understatement. With World War I on the horizon, overdressing was considered gauche. Chanel’s concern for comfort and practicality ensured that her designs would be adopted during the busy war years, as women embraced new and ever more active roles.
After the war, women savored their newly found freedom and continued their appreciation of the garment. Chanel worked closely with models to develop dresses of beauty, comfort and ease of wear. The Little Black Dress survived the Depression, World War II and continues today as the most dependably “right” thing to wear for almost every occasion. Though now produced under many labels, fabrications and at virtually every price point, the little black dress remains the standard of sexy good taste and elegance.
The famous “Ike” jacket, attributed to General Dwight Eisenhower was actually modeled after a British battle dress jacket. At the time the U.S. entered World War II, there was very little consistency in military attire. The U.S. Army uniform had changed with nearly every campaign since the Revolution, loosely following British and Prussian uniforms and civilian fashions. Without a uniform policy, many variations had evolved and bits and pieces were still in use. This changed in 1942 when the Research and Development staff of the Office of the Quartermaster General commenced a program to standardize the Army uniform.
The “bikini” swimsuit, first designed in 1946, was named for the Bikini atoll in the Pacific Ocean, where the United States conducted atomic testing in the late 1940s and early 1950s, which says something of the cultural connections between “explosives” and sex.
Barbie’s Vital Stats
Although there has been some dispute about the exact dimensions of Barbie’s body, the generally-accepted estimates of what she would look like if she were life-size are that she would stand 5 feet 10 inches tall and measure 35-20-32, although some argue her bust would be larger and her waist still smaller. Over the years, her career wardrobe has included fashion model, ballerina, flight attendant, medical doctor, Olympic athlete, TV news reporter, dentist, and most recently, president.
Anspach, Karlyne. The Why of Fashion. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1967.
Ash, Juliet and Elizabeth Wilson. Chic Thrills: A Fashion Reader. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993.
Batterberry, Michael and Ariane. Mirror, Mirror. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977.
Black, J. Anderson and Madge Garland. A History of Fashion. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1980.
Calasibetta, Charlotte. Fairchild’s Dictionary of Fashion. New York: Fairchild Publications, 1975.
Corbman, Bernard. Textiles Fibers to Fabric. 6th ed. New York: McGrawHill, 1983.
de la Haye, Amy. Fashion Source Book. Secaucus, NJ: Wellfleet Press, 1988.
Etherington-Smith, Meredith. Patou. London: Hutchinson & Co., 1983.
Frings, Gini Stephens. Fashion: From Concept to Consumer. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999.
Horn, Marilyn J. The Second Skin: an Interdisciplinary Study of Clothing, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1975.
Kaiser, Susan B. The Social Psychology of Clothing. New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1985.
Lohrer, Robert, ed. “Century: One Hundred Years of Fashion.” In Daily News Record 29, 57 (May 14, 1999) New York: Fairchild.
Lurie, Alison. The Language of Clothes. New York: Random House, 1981.
Melinkoff, Ellen. What We Wore. An Offbeat Social History of Women’s Clothing from 1950–1980. New York: Quill, 1984.
Milbank, Caroline. Rennolds Couture: The Great Designers. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1985.
Murray, Maggie Pexton. Changing Styles in Fashion. New York: Fairchild Publications, 1989.
Schnurnberger, Lynn. Let There Be Clothes. New York: Workman, 1991.
Seeling, Charlotte. Fashion the Century of the Designer. Cologne, Germany: Konnemann, 2000.
Stein, Leon ed. Out of the Sweatshop. New York: Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co., 1977.
Vreeland, Diana. Inventive Paris Clothes 1909–1939. New York: Viking, 1977.
Walkley, Christina. The Ghost in the Looking Glass: The Victorian Seamstress. London: Peter Owen, 1981.
The Fashion Book. (no author listed) London: Phaidin Press, 1998.
WWD “Century: One Hundred Years of Fashion.” Women’s Wear Daily supplement (September 1998).
First resource for links to any subject related to fashion
http://www.fashionangel.com/linkpages/
A site for links to libraries, listservers, usenet groups, and other costume resources
http://www.library.ubc.ca/finearts/COSTUME.html
Reproductions of plates from this nineteenth-century publication
http://www.siue.edu/COSTUMES/history.html
A time line of fashion history.
http://www.costumes.org/pages/timelinepages/timeline.htm
A history of fabrics used in fashion design
http://www.fabriclink.com/History.html
A history of fashion from ancient fashion to the twentieth century
http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Acres/7631/costume.html
A listing of fashion books
http://good-books-bad-books.com/d-books/fashion.html
Sponsored by the National Gallery of Art, this site is a good place to begin any search on period dress in the U.S. Especially useful for hard-to-find info on period accessories.
http://www.nga.gov/home.htm
Christina Lindholm
Virginia Commonwealth University
This is a free page. This page contains 13,454 words. This
article contains 13,773 words (approx. 46 pages at 300
words per page).
Read the rest of this Article with our Fashion Access Pass.
