Automobile
The development of the automobile at the end of the nineteenth century fundamentally changed the structure of society in the developed world and has had wide-ranging effects on the environment, the most notable being the increase of air pollution in cities. The piston-type internal combustion engine is responsible for the peculiar mix of pollutants that it generates. There are a range of other engines suitable for automobiles, but they have yet to displace engines using rather volatile petroleum derivatives.
The simplest and most successful way of improving gaseous emissions from automobiles is to find alternative fuels. Diesel fuels have always been popular for larger vehicles, although a few private vehicles in Europe are also diesel-powered. Compressed natural gases have been widely used as fuel in some countries (e.g., New Zealand), while ethanol has had a limited success in places such as Brazil, where it can be produced relatively cheaply from sugar cane. There is some enthusiasm for the use of methanol in the United States, but it has yet to be seen if this will be widely adopted as a fuel.
Others have suggested that fundamental changes to the engine itself can lower the impact of automobiles on air quality. The Wankel rotary engine is a promising power source that offers both low vibration and pollutant emissions from a relatively lightweight engine. Although Wankel engines are found on a number of exotic cars, there are still doubts about long-term engine performance and durability in the urban setting. Steam and gas turbines have many of the advantages of the Wankel engine, but questions of their expense and suitability for automobiles have restricted their use. Electric vehicles have had some impact for special sectors of the market. They have proved ideal for small vehicles within cities where frequent stop-start operation is required (e.g., delivery vans). A few small, one-seat vehicles have been available at times, but they have failed to achieve any enduring popularity. The electric vehicle suffers from low range, low speed and acceleration, and needs heavy batteries. However these vehicles produce none of the conventional combustion-derived pollutants during operation, although the electricity to recharge the batteries requires the use of an electricity generating station. Still, electricity generation can be sited away from the urban center and employ air pollution controls. Fuel cells are an alternate source of electricity for electric automobiles. It is also possible to power automobiles through the use of flywheels. These are driven up to high speeds by a fixed, probably electric, motor, then the vehicle can be detached and powered using the stored momentum, although range is often limited.
Although automobile emissions are of great concern, the automobile has a far wider range of environmental impacts. Large amounts of material are used in their construction, and discarded automobiles can litter the countryside and fill waste dumps. Through much of the twentieth century the vehicles have been made of steel. Increasingly, other materials, such as plastics and fiberglass, are used as construction materials. A number of projects, most frequently on the European continent, have tried recycling automobile components. Responsible automobile manufacturers are aiming to build vehicles with longer road lives, further aiding waste reduction.
The high speeds now possible for automobiles lead to sometimes horrendous accidents, which can involve many vehicles on crowded highways. The number of accidents have been reduced through anti-lock braking systems, thoughtful road design, and imposing harsh penalties for drunk driving. In the future, on-board radar may give warning of impending collisions. Safety features such as seat belts, padding, and collapsible steering columns have helped lower injury during accidents.
The structure of cities has changed with widespread automobile ownership. It has meant that people can live further away from where they work or shop. The need for parking has led to the development of huge parking lots within the inner city. Reaction to crowding in city centers are seen in the construction of huge shopping centers outof-town, where parking is more convenient (or strip development of large stores along highways). These effects have often caused damage to inner city life and disenfranchised non-car owners, particularly because a high proportion of car ownership often works against the operation of an effective mass transit system. For people who live near busy roads, noise pollution can be a great nuisance. The countryside has also been transformed by the need for super highways that cope with a large and rapid traffic flow. Such highways have often been built on valuable agricultural land or natural habitats, and once constructed, create both practical and aesthetic nuisances.
Resources
Books
Environmental Effects of Automotive Emissions. Paris: OECD Compass Project, 1986.
This is the complete article, containing 762 words
(approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page).
