The following sections of this BookRags Literature Study Guide is offprint from Gale's For Students Series: Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Commonly Studied Works: Introduction, Author Biography, Plot Summary, Characters, Themes, Style, Historical Context, Critical Overview, Criticism and Critical Essays, Media Adaptations, Topics for Further Study, Compare & Contrast, What Do I Read Next?, For Further Study, and Sources.
(c)1998-2002; (c)2002 by Gale. Gale is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Gale and Design and Thomson Learning are trademarks used herein under license.
The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Encyclopedia of Popular Fiction: "Social Concerns", "Thematic Overview", "Techniques", "Literary Precedents", "Key Questions", "Related Titles", "Adaptations", "Related Web Sites". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham.
The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Guide to Literature for Young Adults: "About the Author", "Overview", "Setting", "Literary Qualities", "Social Sensitivity", "Topics for Discussion", "Ideas for Reports and Papers". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham.
All other sections in this Literature Study Guide are owned and copyrighted by BookRags, Inc.
Graphite is a soft, black, metallic mineral composed of the element carbon. It is nontoxic and rubs off easily on rough surfaces, which is why graphite mixed with fine clay, rather than actual lead, is used to make pencil leads. The word graphite derives from the Greek gréphein, to write or draw.
Graphite has the same chemical formula as diamond (C), yet the two minerals could hardly be more unlike. Diamond is the hardest of minerals, graphite one of the softest; diamond is transparent, graphite opaque; and diamond is almost twice as dense as graphite. These radically different properties arise from the way the atoms are arranged in each substance. In graphite, carbon atoms are linked in hexagonal sheets resembling chicken-wire fencing. These sheets slide over each other easily, which accounts for graphite's slipperiness. In diamond, carbon atoms are linked in a potentially endless matrix of tetrahedra (four-cornered pyramids), an extremely strong arrangement. Surprisingly, however, graphite is stable under ordinary atmospheric conditions and diamond is not; that is, at standard temperature and pressure diamond transforms spontaneously to graphite. The rate of transformation is extremely slow because carbon atoms organized into diamond are separated from the lower-energy graphite state by an activation-energy barrier similar to that which keeps an explosive from going off until triggered by a spark.
The carbon in most graphite and diamonds derives from living things. The organic (carbon-containing) remains of organisms may be transformed into coal or into impurities in limestone; under some conditions, metamorphosis of these rocks purifies these organic materials to produce graphite. Further metamorphosis under extremely high pressures, such as occur many miles underground, is needed to produce diamond.
Because graphite is resistant to heat and slows neutrons, it was used in the early years of nuclear-power research as a matrix to contain radioactive fuel elements and moderate their chain reaction. Early atomic reactors were termed atomic piles because they consisted mostly of large piles of graphite blocks. Graphite is used not only in pencils, but also as a lubricant for locksmiths and for bearings operating in vacuum or at high temperatures. Because it is both conductive and slippery, graphite is used in generator brushes. It is also employed in making metallurgical crucibles and electrical batteries. Most of the graphite used is manufactured from coal in electrical furnaces, not mined.