For it was in the great waters of the sixteenth century that the nations whose eyes were open, discovered the fountain of perpetual youth, while others, who were blind, passed rapidly onward to decrepitude.  England was, in many respects, a despotism so far as regarded governmental forms; and no doubt the Catholics were treated with greater rigour than could be justified even by the perpetual and most dangerous machinations of the seminary priests and their instigators against the throne and life of Elizabeth.  The word liberty was never musical in Tudor ears, yet Englishmen had blunt tongues and sharp weapons which rarely rusted for want of use.  In the presence of a parliament, and the absence of a standing army, a people accustomed to read the Bible in the vernacular, to handle great questions of religion and government freely, and to bear arms at will, was most formidable to despotism.  There was an advance on the olden time.  A Francis Drake, a John Hawkins, a Roger Williams, might have been sold, under the Plantagenets, like an ox or an ass.  A ’female villain’ in the reign of Henry III. could have been purchased for eighteen shillings—­hardly the price of a fatted pig, and not one-third the value of an ambling palfrey—­and a male villain, such an one as could in Elizabeth’s reign circumnavigate the globe in his own ship, or take imperial field-marshals by the beard, was worth but two or three pounds sterling in the market.  Here was progress in three centuries, for the villains were now become admirals and generals in England and Holland, and constituted the main stay of these two little commonwealths, while the commanders who governed the ‘invincible’ fleets and armies of omnipotent Spain, were all cousins of emperors, or grandees of bluest blood.  Perhaps the system of the reformation would not prove the least effective in the impending crisis.

It was most important, then, that these two nations should be united in council, and should stand shoulder to shoulder as their great enemy advanced.  But this was precisely what had been rendered almost impossible by the course of events during Leicester’s year of administration, and by his sudden but not final retirement at its close.  The two great national parties which had gradually been forming, had remained in a fluid state during the presence of the governor-general.  During his absence they gradually hardened into the forms which they were destined to retain for centuries.  In the history of civil liberty, these incessant contests, these oral and written disquisitions, these sharp concussions of opinion, and the still harder blows, which, unfortunately, were dealt on a few occasions by the combatants upon each other, make the year 1587 a memorable one.  The great questions of the origin of government, the balance of dynastic forces, the distribution of powers, were dealt with by the ablest heads, both Dutch and English, that could be employed in the service of the kingdom and republic.  It was a war of protocols,