4.  The literature of the village community is so vast that but a few works can be named.  Those of Sir Henry Maine, Mr. Seebohm, and Walter’s Das alte Wallis (Bonn, 1859), are well-known popular sources of information about Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.  For France, P. Viollet, Precis de l’histoire du droit francais.  Droit prive, 1886, and several of his monographs in Bibl. de l’Ecole des Chartes; Babeau, Le Village sous l’ancien regime (the mir in the eighteenth century), third edition, 1887; Bonnemere, Doniol, etc.  For Italy and Scandinavia, the chief works are named in Laveleye’s Primitive Property, German version by K. Bucher.  For the Finns, Rein’s Forelasningar, i. 16; Koskinen, Finnische Geschichte, 1874, and various monographs.  For the Lives and Coures, Prof.  Lutchitzky in Severnyi Vestnil, 1891.  For the Teutons, besides the well-known works of Maurer, Sohm (Altdeutsche Reichsund Gerichts-Verfassung), also Dahn (Urzeit, Volkerwanderung, Langobardische Studien), Janssen, Wilh.  Arnold, etc.  For India, besides H. Maine and the works he names, Sir John Phear’s Aryan Village.  For Russia and South Slavonians, see Kavelin, Posnikoff, Sokolovsky, Kovalevsky, Efimenko, Ivanisheff, Klaus, etc. (copious bibliographical index up to 1880 in the Sbornik svedeniy ob obschinye of the Russ.  Geog.  Soc.).  For general conclusions, besides Laveleye’s Propriete, Morgan’s Ancient Society, Lippert’s Kulturgeschichte, Post, Dargun, etc., also the lectures of M. Kovalevsky (Tableau des origines et de l’evolution de la famille et de la propriete, Stockholm, 1890).  Many special monographs ought to be mentioned; their titles may be found in the excellent lists given by P. Viollet in Droit prive and Droit public.  For other races, see subsequent notes.

5.  Several authorities are inclined to consider the joint household as an intermediate stage between the clan and the village community; and there is no doubt that in very many cases village communities have grown up out of undivided families.  Nevertheless, I consider the joint household as a fact of a different order.  We find it within the gentes; on the other hand, we cannot affirm that joint families have existed at any period without belonging either to a gens or to a village community, or to a Gau.  I conceive the early village communities as slowly originating directly from the gentes, and consisting, according to racial and local circumstances, either of several joint families, or of both joint and simple families, or (especially in the case of new settlements) of simple families only.  If this view be correct, we should not have the right of establishing the series:  gens, compound family, village community—­the second member of the series having not the same ethnological value as the two others.  See Appendix ix.

6.  Stobbe, Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Rechtes, p. 62.

7.  The few traces of private property in land which are met with in the early barbarian period are found with such stems (the Batavians, the Franks in Gaul) as have been for a time under the influence of Imperial Rome.  See Inama-Sternegg’s Die Ausbildung der grossen Grundherrschaften in Deutschland, Bd. i. 1878.  Also, Besseler, Neubruch nach dem alteren deutschen Recht, pp. 11-12, quoted by Kovalevsky, Modern Custom and Ancient Law, Moscow, 1886, i. 134.