on the other hand, include the whole duty of man in relation both to himself and others.  But Plato has never reflected on these differences.  He fancies that the life of the state can be as easily fashioned as that of the individual.  He is favourable to a balance of power, but never seems to have considered that power might be so balanced as to produce an absolute immobility in the state.  Nor is he alive to the evils of confounding vice and crime; or to the necessity of governments abstaining from excessive interference with their subjects.

Yet this confusion of ethics and politics has also a better and a truer side.  If unable to grasp some important distinctions, Plato is at any rate seeking to elevate the lower to the higher; he does not pull down the principles of men to their practice, or narrow the conception of the state to the immediate necessities of politics.  Political ideals of freedom and equality, of a divine government which has been or will be in some other age or country, have greatly tended to educate and ennoble the human race.  And if not the first author of such ideals (for they are as old as Hesiod), Plato has done more than any other writer to impress them on the world.  To those who censure his idealism we may reply in his own words—­ ’He is not the worse painter who draws a perfectly beautiful figure, because no such figure of a man could ever have existed’ (Republic).

A new thought about education suddenly occurs to him, and for a time exercises a sort of fascination over his mind, though in the later books of the Laws it is forgotten or overlooked.  As true courage is allied to temperance, so there must be an education which shall train mankind to resist pleasure as well as to endure pain.  No one can be on his guard against that of which he has no experience.  The perfectly trained citizen should have been accustomed to look his enemy in the face, and to measure his strength against her.  This education in pleasure is to be given, partly by festive intercourse, but chiefly by the song and dance.  Youth are to learn music and gymnastics; their elders are to be trained and tested at drinking parties.  According to the old proverb, in vino veritas, they will then be open and visible to the world in their true characters; and also they will be more amenable to the laws, and more easily moulded by the hand of the legislator.  The first reason is curious enough, though not important; the second can hardly be thought deserving of much attention.  Yet if Plato means to say that society is one of the principal instruments of education in after-life, he has expressed in an obscure fashion a principle which is true, and to his contemporaries was also new.  That at a banquet a degree of moral discipline might be exercised is an original thought, but Plato has not yet learnt to express his meaning in an abstract form.  He is sensible that moderation is better than total abstinence, and that asceticism is but a one-sided training.  He makes the sagacious