look with a favourable eye on any movement which promised to lessen or to abolish it.  Germany in this respect had special reasons for discontent; as has been well said, “It was the milch cow of the Papacy, which at once despised and drained it dry.”  And, as everybody knows, it was in Germany that the standard of revolt against the authority of Rome was first successfully raised.  The political constitution of that country was also peculiarly favourable to the protection of the Reformation and of the persons of the early Reformers.  Although owing a nominal allegiance to the Emperor, or rather to the will of the Diet which met annually under the presidency of the Emperor, the head of each of the little States into which Germany was divided claimed to be independent lord of the territory over which he ruled.  Hence, when the Ernestine line of Saxon princes took the Reformation and the early Reformers under their protection, there was no power ready and willing to compel them to relinquish their design.  The democratic independence of the Free Cities also made them fitting strongholds of the new teachings.

Students of history would do well never to lose sight of the fact that every religion which attempts to bind or to guide the reason, to direct the lives and to determine the conscience of mankind, necessarily has an ethical as well as a theological, a social as well as an individual side.  It concerns itself, not only with the relation of the individual to God or the gods, but also with the relations and duties of man to man.  Hence the close relation and inter-relation of religion and politics.  Politics is the art or act of regulating the social relations of mankind, of determining social or civic rights and duties.  It is neither more nor less than the practical application of accepted abstract ethical, or religious, principles in the domain of social life.  Hence we cannot be surprised that almost every wide-spread religious revival, every renewed application of reason to religion, which almost necessarily gives prominence to its ethical or social side, has been followed by an uprising of the masses against what they had come to regard as the irreligious tyranny and oppression of the ruling privileged classes.  The teachings of Wyclif in England, in the fourteenth century, were followed by the insurrection associated with the name of Wat Tyler; the teachings of Luther and his associates, in the sixteenth century, by the Peasants’ Revolt.

To the economic causes of the unrest of the peasantry and labouring classes during the fifteenth and sixteenth century, we can refer only very briefly.  At the time of the great migration of the fifth century, the free barbarian nations were organised on a tribal or village basis.  By the end of the tenth century, however, what is known as the Feudal System had been established all over Europe.  “No land without a lord” was the underlying principle of the whole Feudal System.  Either by conquest or usurpation,