England was now a commonwealth or republic, governed, in name at least, by a Council of State.  Of this Council John Bradshaw (S448) was president, and the poet Milton was foreign secretary, while General Fairfax with Oliver Cromwell had command of the army.  The real power was in the army, and the true head of the army was Cromwell.  Without him the so-called republic could not have stood a day.

451.  Radical Changes.

All members of the House of Commons, with those who held any civil or military office, were required to swear allegiance to the Commonwealth “without King, or House of Lords.”  The use of the English church service was forbidden, and the statues of Charles I in London were pulled down and demolished.

The Great Seal of England (S145) had already been cast aside, and a new one adopted, having on one side a map of England and Ireland, on the other a representation of the House of Commons in session, with the words, “In the first year of freedom, by God’s blessing restored 1648."[1]

[1] 1648 Old Style would here correspond to 1649 New Style. (See S545, note 2.)

452.  Difficulties of the New Republic.

Shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, General Fairfax (S442) resigned his command, and Cromwell became the sole leader of the military forces of the country.  But the new government, even with his aid, had no easy task before it.

It had enemies in the Royalists, who, since the King’s execution, had grown stronger; in the Presbyterians, who hated both the “Rump Parliament” (S450) and the Parliamentary army; finally, it had enemies in its own ranks, for there were half-crazy fanatics.  “Levelers,"[1] “Come-outers,"[2] and other “cattle and creeping things,” who would be satisfied with nothing but destruction and confusion.

[1] “Levelers”:  a name given to certain radical republicans who wished to reduce all ranks and classes to the same level with respect to political power and privileges. [2] “Come-outers”:  those who abandoned all established ways in government and religion.

Among these there were socialists, or communists, who, like those of the present day, wished to abolish private property, and establish “an equal division of unequal earnings,” while others declared and acted out their belief in the coming end of the world.  Eventually Cromwell had to deal with these crack-brained enthusiasts in a decided way, especially as some of them threatened to assassinate him in order to hasten the advent of the personal reign of Christ and his saints on earth.

453.  The Late King’s Son proclaimed King in Ireland and Scotland; Dunbar; Worcester (1649-1651).