The Syro-Cappadocian Hittites had grown once again powerful and prosperous, but no great leader like Subbiluliuma arose to weld the various States into an Empire, so as to ensure the protection of the mingled peoples from the operations of the aggressive and ambitious war-lords of Assyria.  One kingdom had its capital at Hamath and another at Carchemish on the Euphrates.  The kingdom of Tabal flourished in Cilicia (Khilakku); it included several city States like Tarsus, Tiana, and Comana (Kammanu).  Farther west was the dominion of the Thraco-Phrygian Muski.  The tribes round the shores of Lake Van had asserted themselves and extended their sphere of influence.  The State of Urartu was of growing importance, and the Nairi tribes had spread round the south-eastern shores of Lake Van.  The northern frontier of Assyria was continually menaced by groups of independent hill States which would have been irresistible had they operated together against a common enemy, but were liable to be extinguished when attacked in detail.

A number of Aramaean kingdoms had come into existence in Mesopotamia and throughout Syria.  The most influential of these was the State of Damascus, the king of which was the overlord of the Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah when Ashur-natsir-pal III ascended the Assyrian throne about 885 B.C.  Groups of the Aramaeans had acquired a high degree of culture and become traders and artisans.  Large numbers had filtered, as well, not only into Babylonia but also Assyria and the north Syrian area of Hittite control.  Accustomed for generations to desert warfare, they were fearless warriors.  Their armies had great mobility, being composed mostly of mounted infantry, and were not easily overpowered by the Assyrian forces of footmen and charioteers.  Indeed, it was not until cavalry was included in the standing army of Assyria that operations against the Aramaeans were attended with permanent success.

Ashur-natsir-pal III[429] was preceded by two vigorous Assyrian rulers, Adad-nirari III (911-890 B.C.) and Tukulti-Ninip II (890-885 B.C).  The former had raided North Syria and apparently penetrated as far as the Mediterranean coast.  In consequence he came into conflict with Babylonia, but he ultimately formed an alliance with that kingdom.  His son, Tukulti-Ninip, operated in southern Mesopotamia, and apparently captured Sippar.  In the north he had to drive back invading bands of the Muski.  Although, like his father, he carried out great works at Asshur, he appears to have transferred his Court to Nineveh, a sure indication that Assyria was once again becoming powerful in northern Mesopotamia and the regions towards Armenia.

Ashur-natsir-pal III, son of Tukulti-Ninip II, inaugurated a veritable reign of terror in Mesopotamia and northern Syria.  His methods of dealing with revolting tribes were of a most savage character.  Chiefs were skinned alive, and when he sacked their cities, not only fighting-men but women and children were either slaughtered or burned at the stake.  It is not surprising to find therefore that, on more than one occasion, the kings of petty States made submission to him without resistance as soon as he invaded their domains.