Within a few months after the liberation of the serfs the revolutionary unrest was so wide-spread that the government became alarmed and instituted a policy of vigorous repression.  Progressive papers, which had sprung up as a result of the liberal tendencies characterizing the reign of Alexander II thus far, were suppressed and many of the leading writers were imprisoned and exiled.  Among those thus punished was that brilliant writer, Tchernyshevsky, to whom the Russian movement owes so much.  His Contemporary Review was, during the four critical years 1858-62 the principal forum for the discussion of the problems most vital to the life of Russia.  In it the greatest leaders of Russian thought discussed the land question, co-operation, communism, popular education, and similar subjects.  This served a twofold purpose:  in the first place, it brought to the study of the pressing problems of the time the ablest and best minds of the country; secondly, it provided these Intellectuals with a bond of union and stimulus to serve the poor and the oppressed.  That Alexander II had been influenced to sign the Emancipation Act by Tchernyshevsky and his friends did not cause the authorities to spare Tchernyshevsky when, in 1863, he engaged in active Socialist propaganda.  He was arrested and imprisoned in a fortress, where he wrote the novel which has so profoundly influenced two generations of discontented and protesting Russians—­What is to Be Done? In form a novel of thrilling interest, this work was really an elaborate treatise upon Russian social conditions.  It dealt with the vexed problems of marriage and divorce, the land question, co-operative production, and other similar matters, and the solutions it suggested for these problems became widely accepted as the program of revolutionary Russia.  Few books in any literature have ever produced such a profound impression, or exerted as much influence upon the life of a nation.  In the following year, 1864, Tchernyshevsky was exiled to hard labor in Siberia, remaining there until 1883, when he returned to Russia.  He lived only six years longer, dying in 1889.

The attempt made by a young student to assassinate Alexander II, on April 4, 1866, was seized upon by the Czar and his advisers as an excuse for instituting a policy of terrible reaction.  The most repressive measures were taken against the Intelligentsia and all the liberal reforms which had been introduced were practically destroyed.  It was impossible to restore serfdom, of course, but the condition of the peasants without land was even worse than if they had remained serfs.  Excessive taxation, heavy redemption charges, famine, crop failures, and other ills drove the people to desperation.  Large numbers of students espoused the cause of the peasants and a new popular literature appeared in which the sufferings of the people were portrayed with fervor and passion.  In 1868-69 there were numerous demonstrations and riots by way of protest against the reactionary policy of the government.