and by force, if he was unwilling to perform them.  Every resolution of government required a sort of civil war to put it in execution.  The two last kings had taken, and demolished several of these castles; but when they found the reduction, of any of them difficult, their custom frequently was, to erect another close by it, tower against tower, ditch against ditch:  these were called Malvoisins, from their purpose and situation.  Thus, instead of removing, they in fact doubled the mischief.  Stephen, perceiving the passion of the barons for these castles, among other popular acts in the beginning of his reign, gave a general license for erecting them.  Then was seen to arise in every corner of the kingdom, in every petty seigniory, an inconceivable multitude of strongholds, the seats of violence, and the receptacles of murderers, felons, debasers of the coin, and all manner of desperate and abandoned villains.  Eleven hundred and fifteen of these castles were built in this single reign.  The barons, having thus shut out the law, made continual inroads upon each other, and spread war, rapine, burning, and desolation throughout the whole kingdom.  They infested the highroads, and put a stop to all trade by plundering the merchants and travellers.  Those who dwelt in the open country they forced into their castles, and after pillaging them of all their visible substance, these tyrants held them in dungeons, and tortured them with a thousand cruel inventions to extort a discovery of their hidden wealth.  The lamentable representation given by history of those barbarous times justifies the pictures in the old romances of the castles of giants and magicians.  A great part of Europe was in the same deplorable condition.  It was then that some gallant spirits, struck with a generous indignation at the tyranny of these miscreants, blessed solemnly by the bishop, and followed by the praises and vows of the people, sallied forth to vindicate the chastity of women and to redress the wrongs of travellers and peaceable men.  The adventurous humor inspired by the Crusade heightened and extended this spirit; and thus the idea of knight-errantry was formed.

[Sidenote:  A.D. 1138.]

[Sidenote:  A.D. 1139.]

[Sidenote:  A.D. 1141.]

Stephen felt personally these inconveniences; but because the evil was too stubborn to be redressed at once, he resolved to proceed gradually, and to begin with the castles of the bishops,—­as they evidently held them, not only against the interests of the crown, but against the canons of the Church.  From the nobles he expected no opposition to this design:  they beheld with envy the pride of these ecclesiastical fortresses, whose battlements seemed to insult the poverty of the lay barons.  This disposition, and a want of unanimity among the clergy themselves, enabled Stephen to succeed in his attempt against the Bishop of Salisbury, one of the first whom he attacked, and whose castles, from their strength