[Sidenote:  Geography in the philosophy of history.]

It is natural that the old philosophy of history should have fixed its attention upon the geographic basis of historical events.  Searching for the permanent and common in the outwardly mutable, it found always at the bottom of changing events the same solid earth.  Biology has had the same experience.  The history of the life forms of the world leads always back to the land on which that life arose, spread, and struggled for existence.  The philosophy of history was superior to early sociology, in that its method was one of historical comparison, which inevitably guided it back to the land as the material for the first generalization.  Thus it happens that the importance of the land factor in history was approached first from the philosophical side.  Montesquieu and Herder had no intention of solving sociological and geographical problems, when they considered the relation of peoples and states to their soil; they wished to understand the purpose and destiny of man as an inhabitant of the earth.

[Sidenote:  Theory of progress from the standpoint of geography.]

The study of history is always, from one standpoint, a study of progress.  Yet after all the century-long investigation of the history of every people working out its destiny in its given environment, struggling against the difficulties of its habitat, progressing when it overcame them and retrograding when it failed, advancing when it made the most of its opportunities and declining when it made less or succumbed to an invader armed with better economic or political methods to exploit the land, it is amazing how little the land, in which all activities finally root, has been taken into account in the discussion of progress.  Nevertheless, for a theory of progress it offers a solid basis.  From the standpoint of the land social and political organizations, in successive stages of development, embrace ever increasing areas, and make them support ever denser populations; and in this concentration of population and intensification of economic development they assume ever higher forms.  It does not suffice that a people, in order to progress, should extend and multiply only its local relations to its land.  This would eventuate in arrested development, such as Japan showed at the time of Perry’s visit.  The ideal basis of progress is the expansion of the world relations of a people, the extension of its field of activity and sphere of influence far beyond the limits of its own territory, by which it exchanges commodities and ideas with various countries of the world.  Universal history shows us that, as the geographical horizon of the known world has widened from gray antiquity to the present, societies and states have expanded their territorial and economic scope; that they have grown not only in the number of their square miles and in the geographical range of their international intercourse, but in national