a whole has for the Jew an importance which it never had for a Greek thinker, nor for the Hellenised Jew Philo.  The Hebrew idea of God is dynamic and ethical; it is therefore rooted in the idea of Time.  The Pharisaic school modified this prophetic teaching in two ways.  It became more spiritual; anthropomorphisms were removed, and the transcendence of God above the world was more strictly maintained.  On the other hand, the religious relationship became in their hands narrower and more external.  The notion of a covenant was defined more rigorously; the Law was practically exalted above God, so that the Rabbis even represent the Deity as studying the Law.  With this legalism went a spirit of intense exclusiveness and narrow ecclesiasticism.  As God was raised above direct contact with men, the old animistic belief in angels and demons, which had lasted on in the popular mind by the side of the worship of Jahveh, was extended in a new way.  A celestial hierarchy was invented, with names, and an infernal hierarchy too; the malevolent ghosts of animism became fallen angels.  Satan, who in Job is the crown-prosecutor, one of God’s retinue, becomes God’s adversary; and the angels, formerly manifestations of God Himself, are now quite separated from Him.  A supramundane physics or cosmology was evolved at the same time.  Above Zion, the centre of the earth, rise seven heavens, in the highest of which the Deity has His throne.  The underworld is now first divided into Paradise and Gehenna.  The doctrine of the fall of man, through his participation in the representative guilt of his first parents, is Pharisaic; as is the strange legend, which St. Paul seems to have believed (2 Cor. xi. 3), that the Serpent carnally seduced Eve, and so infected the race with spiritual poison.  Justification, in Pharisaism as for St. Paul, means the verdict of acquittal.  The bad receive in this life the reward for any small merits which they may possess; the sins of the good must be atoned for; but merits, as in Roman Catholicism, may be stored and transferred.  Martyrdoms especially augment the spiritual bank-balance of the whole nation.  There was no official Messianic doctrine, only a mass of vague fancies and beliefs, grouped round the central idea of the appearance on earth of a supernatural Being, who should establish a theocracy of some kind at Jerusalem.  The righteous dead will be raised to take part in this kingdom.  The course of the world is thus divided into two epochs—­’this age’ and ‘the age to come.’  A catastrophe will end the former and inaugurate the latter.  The promised deliverer is now waiting in heaven with God, until his hour comes; and it will come very soon.  All this St. Paul must have learned from Gamaliel.  It formed the framework of his theology as a Christian for many years after his conversion, and was only partially thrown off, under the influence of mystical experience and of Greek ideas, during the period covered by the letters.  The lore of good and bad spirits (the latter are ‘the princes of this world’ in I Cor. ii. 6, 8) pervades the Epistles more than modern readers are willing to admit.  It is part of the heritage of the Pharisaic school.