Nupa of one particular man, but at the same time he has no exclusive right to her as she is the Piraungaru of certain other men who also have the right of access to her.  Looked at from the point of view of the man his Piraungaru are a limited number of the women who stand in the relation of Nupa to him.  There is no such thing as one man having the exclusive right to one woman; the elder brothers, or Nuthie, of the latter, in whose hands the matter lies, will give one man a preferential right, but at the same time they will give other men of the same group a secondary right to her.  Individual marriage does not exist either in name or in practice in the Urabunna tribe.  The initiation in regard to establishing the relationship of Piraungaru between a man and a woman must be taken by the elder brothers, but the arrangement must receive the sanction of the old men of the group before it can take effect.  As a matter of actual practice this relationship is usually established at times when considerable numbers of the tribe are gathered together to perform important ceremonies, and when these and other important matters which require the consideration of the old men are discussed and settled.  The number of a man’s Piraungaru depends entirely upon the measure of his power and popularity; if he be what is called “urku,” a word which implies much the same as our word “influential,” he will have a considerable number; if he be insignificant or unpopular, then he will meet with scanty treatment.  A woman may be Piraungaru to a number of men, and as a general rule the women and men who are Piraungaru to one another are to be found living grouped together.  A man may always lend his wife, that is, the woman to whom he has the first right, to another man, provided always he be her Nupa, without the relationship of Piraungaru existing between the two, but unless this relationship exists no man has any right of access to a woman.  Occasionally, but rarely, it happens that a man attempts to prevent his wife’s Piraungaru from having access to her, but this leads to a fight, and the husband is looked upon as churlish.[223]

The evidence up to this point is presented with a view to establishing the fact that the men in early society had the strongest interest, both on sexual and on property grounds, in retaining a hold on the women of their group; and as an extreme expression of this interest I wish to consider the system of elopement in early society.  While there is no system of government by chiefs among the Australian tribes which we have been considering, the influence of the old men is very powerful in all matters.  The initiatory ceremonies, covering periods of months and occurring at intervals during a period of years, and involving great hardship to the young men, are calculated to inspire them with great respect for the old men and for the traditional practices of the