being bodies representing the citizens as a whole, they were close corporations of the narrowest description.  The ordinary inhabitants of these towns had no voice whatever in the management of their own affairs.  The governing body or vroedschap consisted of a limited number of persons, sometimes not more than forty, belonging to certain families, which filled up vacancies by co-option and chose the burgomasters and sheriffs (schepenen).  Thus it will be seen that popular representation had no place in Holland.  The regent-burghers were a small patrician oligarchy, in whose hands the entire government and administration of the towns rested, and from their number were chosen the deputies, who represented the eighteen privileged cities in the Provincial Estates.

The other provinces do not need such detailed notice.  In Zeeland the Estates consisted of seven members, the “first noble” (who presided) and six towns.  There was but one noble, the Marquis of Flushing and Veere.  William the Silent in 1581 obtained this marquisate by purchase; and his heirs, through its possession, continued to exercise great influence in the Provincial Estates.  As Philip William, Prince of Orange, was in Madrid, Maurice sat in the assembly as “first noble” in his place.  In Utrecht the three Estates were represented, i.e. the nobles, the towns (four in number) and the clergy.  The representatives of the clergy were, however, chosen no longer from the Chapter but from the possessors of what had been Church lands and property.  They were elected by the knights and the small towns out of a list drawn up by the corporation of Utrecht.  They necessarily belonged to the Reformed (Calvinist) faith.  Gelderland was divided into three (so-called) quarters, Nijmwegen, Zutphen and Arnhem.  Each of these quarters had its separate assembly; and there was also a general diet.  The nobles, who were numerous and had large estates, were here very influential.  Friesland was divided into four quarters, three of which (Oostergoo, Westergoo and Zevenwolden) were country districts, the fourth a gathering of the deputies of eleven towns.  The Diet of Friesland was not formed of Estates, the nobles and the town representatives sitting together in the same assembly, which was elected by a popular vote, all who had a small property-qualification possessing the franchise, Roman Catholics excepted.  The system of administration and divided authority was in Friesland a very complicated one, inherited from mediaeval times, but here again the nobles, being large land-owners, had much influence.  The stadholder presided at the diet and had a casting vote.  The Estates of Groningen were divided into two parts—­town and districts—­each with one vote.  The districts were those of Hunsingoo, Fivelingoo and the West-Quarter.  Here also the stadholder had a casting vote.  In Overyssel the Estates, like those of Groningen, consisted of two members, the nobles from the three quarters, Sallant, Twente and Vollenhove, and the deputies of the three towns, Deventer, Kampen and Zwolle.