That second error was the assumption that all true friends of the people, whether Conservatives, Liberals, or revolutionaries, ought to oppose to the utmost the development of capitalism.  In the light of Karl Marx’s discoveries in economic science every one must recognise this to be an egregious mistake.  That great authority, it was said, had proved that the development of capitalism was irresistible, and his conclusions had been confirmed by the recent history of Russia, for all the economic progress made during the last half century had been on capitalist lines.

Even if it were possible to arrest the capitalist movement, it is not desirable from the revolutionary point of view.  In support of this thesis Karl Marx is again cited.  He has shown that capitalism, though an evil in itself, is a necessary stage of economic and social progress.  At first it is prejudicial to the interests of the working classes, but in the long run it benefits them, because the ever-growing proletariat must, whether it desires it or not, become a political party, and as a political party it must one day break the domination of the bourgeoisie.  As soon as it has obtained the predominant political power, it will confiscate, for the public good, the instruments of production—­factories, foundries, machines, etc.—­by expropriating the capitalist.  In this way all the profits which accrue from production on a large scale, and which at present go into the pockets of the capitalists, will be distributed equally among the workmen.

Thus began a new phase of the revolutionary movement, and, like all previous phases, it remained for some years in the academic stage, during which there were endless discussions on theoretical and practical questions.  Lavroff, the prophet of the old propaganda, treated the new ideas “with grandfatherly severity,” and Tikhomirof, the leading representative of the moribund Narodnaya Volya, which had prepared the acts of terrorism, maintained stoutly that the West European methods recommended by Plekhanof were inapplicable to Russia.  The Plekhanof group replied in a long series of publications, partly original and partly translations from Marx and Engels, explaining the doctrines and aims of the Social Democrats.

Seven years were spent in this academic literary activity—­a period of comparative repose for the Russian secret police—­and about 1890 the propagandists of the new school began to work cautiously in St. Petersburg.  At first they confined themselves to forming little secret circles for making converts, and they found that the ground had been to some extent prepared for the seed which they had to sow.  The workmen were discontented, and some of the more intelligent amongst them who had formerly been in touch with the propagandists of the older generation had learned that there was an ingenious and effective means of getting their grievances redressed.  How was that possible?  By combination and strikes.  For