field labour from being carried on regularly.  A much more rational system was that according to which one-half of the serfs worked the first three days of the week, and the other half the remaining three.  In this way there was, without any contravention of the law, a regular and constant supply of labour.  It seems, however, that the great majority of the proprietors followed no strict method, and paid no attention whatever to Paul’s manifesto, which gave to the peasants no legal means of making formal complaints.  They simply summoned daily as many labourers as they required.  The evil consequences of this for the peasants’ crops were in part counteracted by making the peasants sow their own grain a little later than that of the proprietor, so that the master’s harvest work was finished, or nearly finished, before their grain was ripe.  This combination did not, however, always succeed, and in cases where there was a conflict of interests, the serf was, of course, the losing party.  All that remained for him to do in such cases was to work a little in his own fields before six o’clock in the morning and after nine o’clock at night, and in order to render this possible he economised his strength, and worked as little as possible in his master’s fields during the day.

It has frequently been remarked, and with much truth—­though the indiscriminate application of the principle has often led to unjustifiable legislative inactivity—­that the practical result of institutions depends less on the intrinsic abstract nature of the institutions themselves than on the character of those who work them.  So it was with serfage.  When a proprietor habitually acted towards his serfs in an enlightened, rational, humane way, they had little reason to complain of their position, and their life was much easier than that of many men who live in a state of complete individual freedom and unlimited, unrestricted competition.  However paradoxical the statement may seem to those who are in the habit of regarding all forms of slavery from the sentimental point of view, it is unquestionable that the condition of serfs under such a proprietor as I have supposed was more enviable than that of the majority of English agricultural labourers.  Each family had a house of its own, with a cabbage-garden, one or more horses, one or two cows, several sheep, poultry, agricultural implements, a share of the Communal land, and everything else necessary for carrying on its small farming operations; and in return for this it had to supply the proprietor with an amount of labour which was by no means oppressive.  If, for instance, a serf had three adult sons—­and the households, as I have said, were at that time generally numerous—­two of them might work for the proprietor whilst he himself and the remaining son could attend exclusively to the family affairs.  By the events which used to be called “the visitations of God” he had no fear of being permanently ruined.  If his house was burnt, or his cattle