him abjure the doctrine of Predestination—­and both for the same reason.  As the doctrine of Predestination is for the Calvinist, so the wearing of a beard was for the old Russian—­an essential of salvation.  “Where,” asked one of the Patriarchs of Moscow, “will those who shave their chins stand at the Last Day?—­among the righteous adorned with beards, or among the beardless heretics?” The question required no answer.

In the seventeenth century this superstitious, conservative spirit reached its climax.  The civil wars and foreign invasions, accompanied by pillage, famine, and plagues with which that century opened, produced a wide-spread conviction that the end of all things was at hand.  The mysterious number of the Beast was found to indicate the year 1666, and timid souls began to discover signs of that falling away from the Faith which is spoken of in the Apocalypse.  The majority of the people did not perhaps share this notion, but they believed that the sufferings with which they had been visited were a Divine punishment for having forsaken the ancient customs.  And it could not be denied that considerable changes had taken place.  Orthodox Russia was now tainted with the presence of heretics.  Foreigners who shaved their chins and smoked the accursed weed had been allowed to settle in Moscow, and the Tsars not only held converse with them, but had even adopted some of their “pagan” practises.  Besides this, the Government had introduced innovations and reforms, many of which were displeasing to the people.  In short, the country was polluted with “heresy”—­a subtle, evil influence lurking in everything foreign, and very dangerous to the spiritual and temporal welfare of the Faithful—­something of the nature of an epidemic, but infinitely more dangerous; for disease kills merely the body, whereas “heresy” kills the soul, and causes both soul and body to be cast into hell-fire.

Had the Government introduced the innovations slowly and cautiously, respecting as far as possible all outward forms, it might have effected much without producing a religious panic; but, instead of acting circumspectly as the occasion demanded, it ran full-tilt against the ancient prejudices and superstitious fears, and drove the people into open resistance.  When the art of printing was introduced, it became necessary to choose the best texts of the Liturgy, Psalter, and other religious books, and on examination it was found that, through the ignorance and carelessness of copyists, numerous errors had crept into the manuscripts in use.  This discovery led to further investigation, which showed that certain irregularities had likewise crept into the ceremonial.  The chief of the clerical errors lay in the orthography of the word “Jesus,” and the chief irregularity in the ceremonial regarded the position of the fingers when making the sign of the cross.