but a concession which all—­the educated as well as the uneducated—­made to Pagan Polytheism” ("Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament.”  Leviticus, part ii., pp. 284-287.  Ed. 1872).  “When the Jews, ever open to foreign influence in matters of faith, lived under Persian rule, they imbibed, among many other religious views of their masters, especially their doctrines of angels and spirits, which, in the region of the Euphrates and Tigris, were most luxuriantly developed.”  Some of the angels are now “distinguished by names, which the Jews themselves admit to have borrowed from their heathen rulers;” “their chief is Mithron, or Metatron, corresponding to the Persian Mithra, the mediator between eternal light and eternal darkness; he is the embodiment of divine omnipotence and omnipresence, the guardian of the world, the instructor of Moses, and the preserver of the law, but also a terrible avenger of disobedience and wickedness, especially in his capacity of Supreme Judge of the dead” (Ibid, pp. 287, 288).  This is “the angel of the Lord” who went before the children of Israel, of whom God said “my name is in him” (see Ex. xxiii. 20-23), and who is identified by many Christian commentators as the second person in the Trinity.  The belief in devils is the other side of the belief in angels, and “we see, above all, Satan rise to greater and more perilous eminence both with regard to his power and the diversity of his functions.”  “This remarkable advance in demonology cannot be surprising, if we consider that the Persian system known as that of Zoroaster, and centering in the dualism of a good and evil principle, flourished most and attained its fullest development, just about the time of the Babylonian exile” (Ibid, pp. 292, 293).  The Persian creed supplies us, as Dr. Kalisch has well said, with “the sources from which the demonology of the Talmud, the Fathers and the Catholic Church has been derived” (Ibid, p. 318).

The whole ideas of the judgment of the dead, the destruction of the world by fire, and the punishment of the wicked, are also purely Pagan.  Justin Martyr says truly that as Minos and Rhadamanthus would punish the wicked, “we say that the same thing will be done, but by the hand of Christ” ("Apology” 1, chap. viii).  “While we say that there will be a burning up of all, we shall seem to utter the doctrine of the Stoics; and while we affirm that the souls of the wicked, being endowed with sensation even after death, are punished, and that those of the good being delivered from punishment spend a blessed existence, we shall seem to say the same things as the poets and philosophers” (Ibid, chap. xx).  In the Egyptian creed Osiris is generally the Judge of the dead, though sometimes Horus is represented in that character; the dead man is accused before the Judge by Typhon, the evil one, as Satan is the “accuser of the brethren;” forty-two assessors declare the innocence of the accused of the crimes