Committees or Boards.—­The important questions that arise in connection with administrative departments are, how shall they be organized? and how shall the officers who control them be appointed?  Two general methods prevail:  (1)In the smaller cities the members of the council are grouped into committees, which have charge of the various administrative departments.  In large cities there are boards or commissioners, distinct from the council, and these may be composed of salaried officers.  In either case the board may employ a superintendent to take charge of the work under its jurisdiction.  The principal criticism which can be offered against this method of managing administrative departments is that responsibility cannot be definitely located.  No single member of a board or commission will assume responsibility for mismanagement; and when responsibility is divided among several persons, none of them feels it very strongly.

(2)Single Heads of Departments.—­As a remedy for this defect, administrative departments in some cities are placed under the control of single officers.  These are given authority to appoint their subordinates, and they are held strictly accountable for the management of the department.  Responsibility is further concentrated in some cities by giving the mayor power to appoint these heads of departments.

The Commission Form of City Government.—­This form is found in a number of cities throughout the country.  In place of the mayor and council these cities have a small body of men (generally three or five) who both make and execute city ordinances.  They are elected at large from the city.  Each of the commissioners is in charge of one or more of the city departments, and all subordinate officers are appointed by them.  The commissioners are expected to devote their entire time to their duties and they are paid liberal salaries.  Thus, it is hoped, city government will become more business-like and efficient.

In most cities that have the commission form provision is made for the initiative, referendum, and recall.  The initiative enables a body of citizens who sign a petition to obtain a certain law by popular vote, if the commission refuses to pass it.  The referendum enables citizens to vote for or against a law that the commission has passed, and thus to repeal it if they desire.  Under the recall a member of the commission can be made to stand for re-election, or else to resign, at any time during his term of office, if a certain number of citizens petition for this action.

Qualifications of City Officers.—­Grave questions are involved in these matters of organization, but the efficiency of city government depends in the greatest measure upon the character of the officers who are placed in power.  We need to recognize the importance, in city affairs as in private business, of securing officials who are qualified by training and by successful experience to serve the public.  Economy and honesty in municipal government cannot be expected when politics alone determines appointments to office.  The establishment of civil-service-examination systems in certain cities is a step in the right direction.