[Footnote 2:  Pras’astapada speaks of dharma (merit) as being a quality of the soul.  Thereupon S’ridhara points out that this view does not admit that dharma is a power of karma (nakarmasamarthyam).  Sacrifice etc. cannot be dharma for these actions being momentary they cannot generate the effects which are only to be reaped at a future time.  If the action is destroyed its power (samarthya) cannot last.  So dharma is to be admitted as a quality generated in the self by certain courses of conduct which produce happiness for him when helped by certain other conditions of time, place, etc.  Faith (s’raddha), non-injury, doing good to all beings, truthfulness, non-stealing, sex-control, sincerity, control of anger, ablutions, taking of pure food, devotion to particular gods, fasting, strict adherence to scriptural duties, and the performance of duties assigned to each caste and stage of life, are enumerated by Pras’astapada as producing dharma.  The person who strictly adheres to these duties and the yamas and niyamas (cf.  Patanjali’s Yoga) and attains Yoga by a meditation on the six padarthas attains a dharma which brings liberation (mok@sa).  S’ridhara refers to the Sa@mkhya-Yoga account of the method of attaining salvation (Nyayakandali, pp. 272-280).  See also Vallabha’s Nyayalilavati, pp. 74-75. (Bombay, 1915.)]

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the opposite quality, the presence of which in the soul leads a man to suffer. Ad@r@s@ta or destiny is that unknown quality of things and of the soul which brings about the cosmic order, and arranges it for the experience of the souls in accordance with their merits or demerits.

Karma means movement; it is the third thing which must be held to be as irreducible a reality as dravya or gu@na.  There are five kinds of movement, (1) upward, (2) downward, (3) contraction, (4) expansion, (5) movement in general.  All kinds of karmas rest on substances just, as the gu@nas do, and cause the things to which they belong to move.

Samanya is the fourth category.  It means the genus, or aspect of generality or sameness that we notice in things.  Thus in spite of the difference of colour between one cow and another, both of them are found to have such a sameness that we call them cows.  In spite of all diversity in all objects around us, they are all perceived as sat or existing.  This sat or existence is thus a sameness, which is found to exist in all the three things, dravya, gu@na, and karma.  This sameness is called samanya or jati, and it is regarded as a separate thing which rests on dravya, gu@na, or karma.  This highest genus satta (being) is called parajati (highest universal), the other intermediate jatis are called aparajati (lower universals), such as the genus of dravya, of karma, or of gu@na, or still more intermediate jatis such as gotvajati (the genus cow), nilatvajati (the genus blue).  The intermediate jatis or genera sometimes appear to have a special aspect as a species, such as pas’utva (animal jati) and gotva (the cow jati); here however gotva appears as a species, yet it is in reality nothing but a jati.  The aspect as species has no separate existence.  It is jati which from one aspect appears as genus and from another as species.