In the fourth book in course of the examination of do@sa (defects), it is said that moha (ignorance), is at the root of all other defects such as raga (attachment) and dve@sa (antipathy).  As against the Buddhist view that a thing could be produced by destruction, it is said that destruction is only a stage in the process of origination.  Is’vara is regarded as the cause of the production of effects of deeds performed by men’s efforts, for man is not always found to attain success according to his efforts.  A reference is made to the doctrine of those who say that all things have come into being by no-cause (animitta), for then no-cause would be the cause, which is impossible.

The doctrine of some that all things are eternal is next refuted on the ground that we always see things produced and destroyed.

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[Footnote 1:  Nyaya sutra III. ii. 44.]

301

The doctrine of the nihilistic Buddhists (s’unyavadin Bauddhas) that all things are what they are by virtue of their relations to other things, and that of other Buddhists who hold that there are merely the qualities and parts but no substances or wholes, are then refuted.  The fruits of karmas are regarded as being like the fruits of trees which take some time before they can ripen.  Even though there may be pleasures here and there, birth means sorrow for men, for even the man who enjoys pleasure is tormented by many sorrows, and sometimes one mistakes pains for pleasures.  As there is no sorrow in the man who is in deep dreamless sleep, so there is no affliction (kles’a) in the man who attains apavarga (salvation) [Footnote ref 1].  When once this state is attained all efforts (prav@rtti) cease for ever, for though efforts were beginningless with us they were all due to attachment, antipathy, etc.  Then there are short discussions regarding the way in which egoism (aha@mkara) ceases with the knowledge of the true causes of defects (do@sa); about the nature of whole and parts and about the nature of atoms (a@nus) which cannot further be divided.  A discussion is then introduced against the doctrine of the Vijnanavadins that nothing can be regarded as having any reality when separated from thoughts.  Incidentally Yoga is mentioned as leading to right knowledge.

The whole of the fifth book which seems to be a later addition is devoted to the enumeration of different kinds of refutations (nigrahasthana) and futilities (jati).

Caraka, Nyaya sutras and Vais’e@sika sutras.

When we compare the Nyaya sutras with the Vais’e@sika sutras we find that in the former two or three differentstreams of purposes have met, whereas the latter is much more homogeneous.  The large amount of materials relating to debates treated as a practical art for defeating an opponent would lead one to suppose that it was probably originally compiled from some other existing treatises which were used by Hindus and Buddhists alike for rendering themselves fit to hold their own in debates with their opponents [Footnote ref 2].  This assumption is justified when