[Illustration:  FIG. 70.—­BAKER’S MILLS. (Pompeii.)]

[Illustration:  FIG. 71.—­CUPIDS AS GOLDSMITHS. (Wall Painting.)]

[Illustration:  FIG. 72.—­GARLAND-MAKERS.]

[Illustration:  FIG. 73.—­BUST OF CAECILIUS JUCUNDUS.]

The baker, for example, was his own miller.  There are still standing the mills, with the upper stone—­a hollow cylinder with a pinched waist—­capable of revolving upon the under stone and letting the flour drop into the rim below.  Into the holes in the middle of the upper or “donkey” stone, and across the top, were fixed wooden bars, which were either pushed by men or drawn by asses yoked to them.  The oven is still in place, and, charred as they are, we are quite familiar with the round flat loaves shaped and divided like a large “cross” bun.  The dough was kneaded by a vertical shaft with arms revolving in a receptacle, from the sides of which other arms projected inwards, so that there was little room for the dough to be squeezed between them.  We have pictures of the fuller, to whom the woollen garments—­the togas and tunics, and the mantles of the women—­were regularly sent to be washed by treading in vats, to be beaten, stretched, and bleached with sulphur, and to have their naps raised with a comb or a bunch of thorns.  The goldsmith is depicted at his furnace or his anvil.  The garland-makers are at work fastening the blossoms or petals on a ribbon or a tough strip of lime-bark.  Dealers in other goods are showing the results of their labour to customers, who carefully examine them by eye, touch, and smell.  The tablets containing the receipts for sales and rents still exist as they were found in the house of the shrewd-looking Jucundus the auctioneer.  They formally acknowledge the receipt of such-and-such sums realised at an auction, “minus commission,” although unfortunately they do not happen to tell us how much the commission was.  We see the venders of wine filling the jars for customers from the large wine-skin in the waggon.  In conclusion to this subject it should be observed that all manner of descriptive signs were in use; and just as one may still see a barber’s pole or a gilt boot in front of a shop, or a painted sign at a public-house, so one might see the representation of a goat at the door of a milk-vender, or of an eagle or elephant at the door of an inn.

[Illustration:  FIG. 74.—­PLOUGH. (Primitive and later forms.)]

Meanwhile out in the country we can perceive the farm, with its hedges of quick-set, its stone walls, or its bank and ditch.  The rather primitive plough—­though not always so primitive as it was a generation or so ago in Italy—­is being drawn by oxen, while, for the rest, there are in use nearly all the implements which were employed before the quite modern invention of machinery.  It may be remarked at this point that the rotation of crops was well understood and regularly practised.  Then there are the pasturelands,