the holy city, with the exception of the Mosque of Omar, was made over to him as king of Jerusalem. The Seventh (1248-1254), conducted by St. Louis in the fulfilment of a vow, in which Louis was defeated and taken prisoner, and only recovered his liberty by payment of a heavy ransom. The Eighth (1270), also undertaken by St. Louis, who lay dying at Tunis as the towns of Palestine fell one after another into the hands of the Saracens.  The Crusades terminated with the fall of Ptolemais in 1291.

CRUSOE, ROBINSON, the hero of Defoe’s fiction of the name, a shipwrecked sailor who spent years on an uninhabited island, and is credited with no end of original devices in providing for his wants.  See SELKIRK.

CSOMA DE KOeROeS, ALEXANDER, a Hungarian traveller and philologist, born in Koeroes, Transylvania; in the hope of tracing the origin of the Magyar race, set out for the East in 1820, and after much hardship by the way arrived in Thibet, where, under great privations, though aided by the English Government, he devoted himself to the study of the Thibetan language; in 1831 settled in Calcutta, where he compiled his Thibetan Grammar and Dictionary, and catalogued the Thibetan works in the library of the Asiatic Society; died at Darjeeling just as he was setting out for fresh discoveries (1784-1836).

CTESIAS, Greek physician and historian of Persia; was present with Artaxerxes Mnemon at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C., and stayed afterwards at the Persian court, where he got the materials for his history, of which only a few fragments are extant.

CTESIPHON, an Athenian who, having proposed that the city should confer a crown of gold on Demosthenes, was accused by AEschines of violating the law in so doing, but was acquitted after an eloquent oration by Demosthenes in his defence.

CUBA (1,500), the largest of the West India Islands, 700 m. long and from 27 m. to 290 m. in breadth; belonged to Spain, but is now under the protection of the United States; is traversed from E. to W. by a range of mountains wooded to the summit; abounds in forests—­ebony, cedar, mahogany, &c.; soil very fertile; exports sugar and tobacco; principal town, Havana.

CUBBIT, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent English engineer, born in Norfolk; more or less employed in most of the great engineering undertakings of his time (1785-1861).

CUDWORTH, RALPH, an eminent English divine and philosopher, born in Somerset; his chief work, a vast and discursive one, and to which he owes his fame, “The True Intellectual System of the Universe,” in which he teaches a philosophy of the Platonic type, which ascribes more to the abiding inner than the fugitive outer of things; he defends revealed religion on grounds of reason against both the atheist and the materialist; his candour and liberality exposed him to much misconstruction, and on that account was deemed a latitudinarian.  “He stands high among our early philosophers for his style, which, if not exactly elegant and never splendid, is solid and clear” (1617-1688).