Sec. 14. #Artificial versus natural growth.# Opposed to this view is a deep and widespread popular opinion or prejudice, against the trust and in favor of competition.  General opinion in this case (as not always) finds much support in special economic studies of the methods by which the existing industrial trusts came into being.  First the question properly is raised; just what is meant by “natural”?  In a sense everything has been the natural outcome of evolution,—­the steam engine, the submarine, the boycott, militarism.  In an equally good, if not better sense, every mechanical invention and every method of industrial organization is artificial, has been the result of man’s choice and effort.  In any case men may choose as good or reject as unsuitable or bad, any particular mechanical device, and society may decide to adopt any particular policy toward a certain form of business organization and certain business practices (unless, indeed, our philosophy be that of automatism, crude determination or fatalism, regarding all human affairs).

Now when one examines the methods which the notable trusts actually did employ, and apparently had to employ, even when they were already powerful single enterprises, in order to destroy their competitors and to attain their monopolistic power, the word “natural” seems hardly to describe the process.  The evidence is not a matter of hearsay but is embodied in a long line of judicial decisions, and in numerous special inquiries by governmental commissions and officials.[18]

Sec. 15. #Kinds of unfair practices#.  This evidence is a startling array of “unfair practices” and “unfair” forms of competition, which, however novel in appearance, are essentially of the kind that has been illegal under the common law for the past five hundred years.  Many of these practices were baldly dishonest, many of them were contemptibly mean.  The manifold varieties of unfair competition may be roughly grouped under three headings according as they are connected with (1) Illegal favors received from public or quasi-public officials; (2) Discrimination against, or control of, customers; (3) Foul tactics against competitors.

(1) Among the practices in the first group are discriminatory rates and rebates from railroads, favoritism in matters of taxation, undue influence in legislatures, special manipulation of tariff rates through powerful lobbies, or paid agents, undue influence in the courts through the employment of lawyers of the highest talent, who often later became judges.

(2) Among the unfair practices toward customers are discriminations among them by the various forms of price cutting, grants of credit, and kinds of service.  The liberty of retail dealers is limited in a variety of ways, such as fixing resale prices, requirement of exclusive dealing, and full-line forcing.