made by labor officials for a group of men.  The standard rate may be a piece price or a time price, and in many cases the unions strive to secure the latter as more convenient for their purposes.  The standard time rate usually is but a minimum and many of the more skilful workers receive wages above the minimum.  But the standard minimum tends to become also the maximum in many cases, the more so when the union has succeeded in enforcing a pretty high standard rate.

Sec. 7. #Limitation of competition among workers#.  In order that the representatives of organized laborers may act effectively in collective bargaining the first condition necessary is that a large proportion, if not all, of the workers of the trade in the establishments concerned shall be organized.  A common sense of wrong is one of the strongest motives to bring workers together, and has prompted the origin of many a local chapter.  Then constant and strenuous efforts are made to bring workers into the organized ranks.  Experienced organizers knowing all the arts of persuasion devote their whole time to this task, being paid regular salaries.  When friendly argument fails, threats may be used and sometimes personal violence.  The public opinion and class feeling fostered among members of an organization in times of difficulties are analogous to the sense of patriotism in the nation at large and at times may displace it in the hearts of organized laborers as is seen in opposition to the militia and to the maintenance of order in times of strikes.  The most effective of all peaceful methods if petty persecution rising at times to social ostracism.  The individual who declines to enter the union is denounced as a traitor to his fellow workers and is made to feel their scorn.  The use of the union card to be carried by every member to show whether he is in good standing is an effective way of enforcing these measures.  Finally, where all these measures fail, pressure may be brought upon the employer to get him to force unwilling workers into the union.[4]

Further to give control over those working in a trade and to reduce competition among workers, unions often limit the number of apprentices and determine who shall have the privilege of learning the trade.  By a variety of regulations they limit the output and in many cases (tho less frequently now) have opposed the use of labor-saving machinery.  Further to enforce these policies they seek to have each special kind of work controlled by a special union.  This gives rise to disputes between rival unions and causes annoyance and loss to the workers themselves, to the employers, and to the general public.