the financial risk, or by some salaried employee selected by him.  It is this management function the reward of which should, in theory, be made to vary with the amount of profits; and in fact such an arrangement (managerial profit-sharing, so to speak) is undoubtedly in operation in thousands of cases, but is not included in the usual conception of profit-sharing.  Many salaried managers are in receipt of a share of profits and are gradually acquiring an interest in partnerships or a larger share of ownership in the enterprise for which they work.  But ordinary profit-sharing is not in accord with the general trend toward the centralization of responsibility in the hands of competent managers, ensuring to the worker a definite amount in advance, as high as conditions make possible.  The system of premiums, or bonus payments, for output, where it can be safeguarded against abuses, gives in most cases better results and is rapidly spreading.  It is sounder in conception and works better in practice as a method of remuneration for most of the workers.

Sec. 13. #Purpose of producers’ cooeperation.# Since the early part of the nineteenth century many well-wishers of humanity have cherished high hopes that the whole wage system might gradually be replaced by the plan of producers’ cooeperation among workingmen.  Producers’ cooeperation is the union of workers in a self-employing group, performing for themselves the enterpriser’s function.  The workers hope to get what seems to them to be a needless drain of profits into the pockets of the employer and unnecessarily high salaries to managers.  To do this they must perform the enterpriser’s function as to investment and risk.  Collectively or through their representatives they must undertake to furnish capital and management as well as hand-work.  The capital may be supplied either by the members, individually or collectively, or may be borrowed from outsiders, who are thus merely passive investors.  Usually the return to capital invested by members is limited to 5 or 6 per cent, so that this part of the capital likewise is treated as a passive investment, and all the real variable profits are distributed to the members as wages.  The hope has been as in profit-sharing to increase the amount of profits through the stimulus the plan might give to the workers and by saving in friction, disputes, and strikes.

Sec. 14. #Limited success of the plan.# Practically the plan has been made to work in a comparatively few simple industries.  The most notable example of successful cooeperation in America was in the cooper-shops in Minneapolis.  There were few and uniform materials, patterns, and qualities of product, few machines and much hand-labor, simple well-known processes, a simple problem of costs, a sure local market.  After more than thirty years the main shop was still in operation, but with a membership of the older men and with no growth, A number of the less skilled workers receive ordinary wages.  In America a few of the