[Illustration:  Martyrdom of SS.  Crispin and Crepinien.

From a window in the Hopital des Quinze-Vingts (Fifteenth Century).]

Generally the members of a corporation were divided into three distinct classes—­the masters, the paid assistants or companions, and the apprentices.  Apprenticeship, from which the sons of masters were often exempted, began between the ages of twelve and seventeen years, and lasted from two to five years.  In most of the trades the master could only receive one apprentice in his house besides his own son.  Tanners, dyers, and goldsmiths were allowed one of their relatives in addition, or a second apprentice if they had no relation willing to learn their trade; and although some commoner trades, such as butchers and bakers, were allowed an unlimited number of apprentices, the custom of restriction had become a sort of general law, with the object of limiting the number of masters and workmen to the requirements of the public.  The position of paid assistant or companion was required to be held in many trades for a certain length of time before promotion to mastership could be obtained.

[Illustration:  Fig. 243.—­Bootmaker’s Apprentice working at a Trial-piece.—­From a Window of the Thirteenth Century, published by Messrs. Cahier and Martin]

When apprentices or companions wished to become masters, they were called aspirants, and were subjected to successive examinations.  They were particularly required to prove their ability by executing what was termed a chef-d’oeuvre, which consisted in fabricating a perfect specimen of whatever craft they practised.  The execution of the chef-d’oeuvre gave rise to many technical formalities, which were at times most frivolous.  The aspirant in certain cases had to pass a technical examination, as, for instance, the barber in forging and polishing lancets; the wool-weaver in making and adjusting the different parts of his loom; and during the period of executing the chef-d’oeuvre, which often extended over several months, the aspirant was deprived of all communication with his fellows.  He had to work at the office of the association, which was called the bureau, under the eyes of the jurors or syndics, who, often after an angry debate, issued their judgment upon the merits of the work and the capability of the workman (Figs. 243 and 244).

[Illustration:  Fig. 244.—­Carpenter’s Apprentice working at a Trial-piece.—­From one of the Stalls called Misericordes, in Rouen Cathedral (Fifteenth Century).]

On his admission the aspirant had first to take again the oath of allegiance to the King before the provost or civil deputy, although he had already done so on commencing his apprenticeship.  He then had to pay a duty or fee, which was divided between the sovereign or lord and the brotherhood, from which fee the sons of masters always obtained a considerable abatement.  Often, too, the husbands of the daughters of masters