of Trade Corporations and other Communities.—­Energy of the Corporations.—­Masters, Journeymen, Supernumeraries, and Apprentices.—­Religious Festivals and Trade Societies.—­Trade Unions.

Learned authorities have frequently discussed, without agreeing, on the question of the origin of the Corporations of the Middle Ages.  It may be admitted, we think a priori, that associations of artisans were as ancient as the trades themselves.  It may readily be imagined that the numerous members of the industrial classes, having to maintain and defend their common rights and common interests, would have sought to establish mutual fraternal associations among themselves.  The deeper we dive into ancient history the clearer we perceive traces, more or less distinct, of these kinds of associations.  To cite only two examples, which may serve to some extent as an historical parallel to the analogous institutions of the present day, we may mention the Roman Colleges, which were really leagues of artisans following the same calling; and the Scandinavian guilds, whose object was to assimilate the different branches of industry and trade, either of a city or of some particular district.

Indeed, brotherhoods amongst the labouring classes always existed under the German conquerors from the moment when Europe, so long divided into Roman provinces, shook off the yoke of subjection to Rome, although she still adhered to the laws and customs of the nation which had held her in subjection for so many generations.  We can, however, only regard the few traces which remain of these brotherhoods as evidence of their having once existed, and not as indicative of their having been in a flourishing state.  In the fifth century, the Hermit Ampelius, in his “Legends of the Saints,” mentions Consuls or Chiefs of Locksmiths.  The Corporation of Goldsmiths is spoken of as existing in the first dynasty of the French kings.  Bakers are named collectively in 630 in the laws of Dagobert, which seems to show that they formed a sort of trade union at that remote period.  We also see Charlemagne, in several of his statutes, taking steps in order that the number of persons engaged in providing food of different kinds should everywhere be adequate to provide for the necessities of consumption, which would tend to show a general organization of that most important branch of industry.  In Lombardy colleges of artisans were established at an early period, and were, no doubt, on the model of the Roman ones.  Ravenna, in 943, possessed a College of Fishermen; and ten years later the records of that town mention a Chief of the Corporation of Traders, and, in 1001, a Chief of the Corporation of Butchers.  France at the same time kept up a remembrance of the institutions of Roman Gaul, and the ancient colleges of trades still formed associations and companies in Paris and in the larger towns.  In 1061 King Philip I. granted certain privileges to Master Chandlers