In addition to the popular council there is a magistrate representing the royal government, who, with the consent of the council, may be admitted to their deliberations, but is not allowed to vote.  He is also ex-officio a member and often chairman of the municipal departments or commissions, such as the board of public works, the school board, the harbor commission.  In this way he becomes a connecting link between the national authority at Christiania and the municipal councils throughout the kingdom, because certain measures of local interest are subject to restrictions by the national parliament, particularly those involving finances.

Under the direction of the council are permanent executive departments similar to those found in the United States, pertaining to public highways, the public buildings, the public health, the relief of the poor, the fire department, police department, etc.  These in every case are managed by permanent officials under the supervision of committees of the council.  Every year a budget is made up of the income and expenditures expected; each department being permitted to submit its own estimates, which are approved or amended by the council, and the amount is raised by taxation of houses, lands, personal property, and incomes, with fees for licenses to transact business.  The entire system of local taxation is similar to our own, and the methods of assessment are the same.  In order to meet the expense of unusual undertakings for the benefit of the municipality, such as waterworks, tramways, docks, etc., funds are raised in the usual manner by the issue of interest bearing bonds, which are usually in small denominations in order to permit people of limited means to invest in them.  They are redeemed, as a rule, in forty annual instalments, the bonds to be canceled being selected by lot.  In this system of local government women now participate upon an equal basis with men.

With the exception of the British parliament, the Swedish riksdag is the oldest legislative body in the world.  The kingdom of Sweden has maintained its integrity for not less than four thousand years.  So far back as the anthropologists can trace the history of Swedish people, the boundaries of their land have remained the same.  The Duchy of Finland was subject to Swedish sovereignty at one time, and at different times Sweden has been united with Norway and Denmark under the same ruler, but Sweden has been Sweden ever since human beings inhabited its territory, and it is the only nation in Europe that has never been conquered or had its boundaries changed by foreign powers.  Since the beginning of history, home rule has prevailed among the people and has been defended and recognized as their right.  The parishes have always controlled their own affairs, and since the Reformation their government has been in the hands of a board or council elected by the people, of which the pastor of the church is chairman.  Everybody who pays taxes, men and